f\^ » • • , e i^llllllll^^ .- ^ >4 ./""^^ .0-^^ : 0^ i'-'^:>&;X yy^<-°- /''iMk^-'-^ ^° • ,/%. -^i-o^ o V -n^.o^ XTbe Tllniversitp of Cbtcaao THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE OGDEN GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SCIENCE IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY BY STEPHEN SARGENT VISHER LC Private Edition, Distributed By THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO LIBRARIES CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Reprinted from South Dakota State Geological Survey, Bulletin No. July 1918 XLbe XHntversit^ of Cbicaao THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE OGDEN GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SCIENCE IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY BY STEPHEN SARGENT VISHER M Private Edition, Distributed By THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO LIBRARIES CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Reprinted from South Dakota State Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 8 July 1918 eift Tniversil^ The Geography of South Dakota A Detailed Discussion of the SURFACE, RESOURCES, CLIMATE, PLANTS, ANIMALS, and HUMAN GEOGRAPHY Including the HISTORY of the Area. A Study in Regional Geography By STEPHEN SARGENT VISHER, Ph. D. (U. of Chicago) United States Geological Survey PREFACE The following study is based on extensive field work and nearly all the available literature on the subject. The regular field work, done under the auspices of the State Survey, when Ellwood C. Perisho was State Geologist, occupied most or all of four seasons and involved reconnaissance work in more than three-fourths of the counties of the state and detailed work in several, (see the Geography, Geology, and Biology of South- Central South Dakota and the Biology and Bio-geography of North- western South Dakota, Bulls. V and VI of the State Survey.) A resi- dence in the state, extending over most of my life and including three years (1910-1913) as an instructor in the University of South Dakota, has greatly increased my knowledge of local conditions. Assistance in the field investigations was received from Dr. Perisho, then State Geologist, W. H. Over, Naturalist of the Survey, B. A. Iverson and Ralph W. Chaney, members of Survey field parties. Of the long list of publications dealing with the state from which facts have been obtained, special mention should be made of those of the first State Geologist, J. E. Todd. While writing the manuscript, many valuable suggestions were received from professors at the University of cilhicago: Dean R. D. Salisbury, especially on chapters I-IV, VI; Dr. W. S. Tower on chapters I, V, VII; Drs. H. C. Cowles and Professor J. Paul Goode on chapters VI and VII; V. E. Shelford, on chapter VI; and Professor H. H. Barrows on chapter VII; and also my wife. Few changes have been made in the manuscript since February 1915. TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface 3 Table of Contents 4 Chapter 1 — Introductory Geographic Location and its Significance 7 South Dakota as a Frontier Area 7 Shape 8 Area 9 Boundaries 9 The Eastern Boundary 10 The Western Boundary 11 The Southern Boundary 11 The Northern Boundary 11 Chapter 2 — Geology 13 Chapter 3 — ^Mineral Resources Artesian and Other Waters 16 Artesian Wells 16 Shallow Wells 19 Springs 19 Springs and Human Geography 20 Mineral Waters: Streams 20 Lakes and Ponds: Rain Water 21 Clays and Cement Materials 21 Clays: Cement Materials: Gypsum: Limestone 22 Building Stones and Road Materials 22 Granite: Porphyry 22 Quartzite: Bowlders: Marble 23 Limestone, Chalk: Sandstone: Sand and Gravel 23 Mineral Fuels 24 Coal: Natural Gas 24 Ores in the Black Hills 24 Gold 24 Silver: Lead: Copper 25 Iron: Tin: Tungsten: Manganese 26 Miscellaneous Mineral Products 26 Soils 26 Cliapter 4 — Physiography General Features 29 The Slope: The Relief 29 Ruggedness: Drainage 29 The Physiographic Provinces 31 The Prairie Plains 32 The Southeastern River Valleys 32 Position: Area: Topography 32 ' The Dakota Valley 34 Location 34 Topography: Relief: Elevation 35 The Coteau Regions 36 • ' Location and Area 36 Elevation: Drainage 37 Glacial Lakes 37 The Great Plains 39 Area: Topography 39 Elevation 41 Bad Lands 42 Sand Hills 43 The Black Hills 43 Chapter 5 — Climate General Characteristics 50 Factors Determining the Climate 50 Winds 50 Temperature 53 Mean Annual: Mean Monthly 53 Mean Daily 54 Maxima and Minima 5 5 Daily Ranges in Temperature 56 Diurnal Variability of Temperature 57 Length of Growing Season 57 The Length of the Day 58 Humidity 59 Evaporation 60 Cloudiness 60 Precipitation 60 Annual 60 The Sources of the Moisture 61 Monthly Precipitation 63 Number of Rainy Days 65 Variability in the Amount of Precipitation 65 Snowfall: Hail 66 Variability of the Weather 6 6' Supposed Changes of Climate 67 Chapter 6 — Bio-Geography Introduction 68 Bio-Geography an Index to Geographic Conditions 70 Bio-Geography and Human Geography 75 Bio-Geographic Districts 77 The Eastern Third of the State 77 The Great Plains 78 The Black Hills District 79 The Ecological Associations 79 The Steppe Formation 80 General Geographic Conditions 80 The More Conspicuous Plants and Animals 81 Adaptations of Life to Steppe Conditions 83 Plants 83 Birds 86 Mammals 87 Reptiles: Insects 88 The Buffalo-Grama Grass or Climax Steppe Association .... 89 The Needle Grass or Sandy Loam Steppe Association 89 The Wheat Grass or Clay Steppe Association 9U The Bunch Gras or Dry Soil Steppe Association 91 The Low Shrub Group of Associations 93 Badlands 94 The Prairies or Fairly Moist Grass-Covered Plains 95 Distribution: Conditions 95 Dominant Plants and Animals of the Prairie 96 Some Characteristics of the Prairie Biota 97 The Meadow or Tall Grass Formation 97 Distribution: Conditions 97 Dominant Plants and Animals of Meadows 97 The Life and the Environment 98 The Woodland 98 In General 9 8 Distribution 9 8 Geographic Conditions 99 Dominant Plants and Animals 99 Groves Along Flood Plains 101 Ravine and Gulch Woodland 101 Woods on Bluffs: Pine Forests 102 The Aquatic and Semi-Aquatic Group Associations 103 In General 103 Distribution: Geographic Conditions ...., 103 Dominant Plants and Animals 103 Characteristics of Aquatic Life 101 Marshes 104 Ponds 105 Lakes 106 Streams 106 Chapter 7 — Human Geography The Population and its Composition 109 The Densitv of Population 110 Location of Dwellings: Location of Towns Ill Eastern Half of the State 112 Black Hills Region: Great Plains Section 114 The More Important Occupations 11-') Agriculture 115 Stock Raising 115 Farming 119 Mining and Quarrying 124 Lumbering 124 Manufacturing 125 Commerce 128 Historical Geography or the Evolution of Preisent Conditions 129 Introductory 129 Geography of Exploration 129 Gecgraphv of the Fur Trade 132 River Commerce 134 The Settlement of the State . . . 137 Causes for Late Settlement 137 Settleme-nt Before 1876 139 Beginnings of Settlement 139 Hard Times 140 The First Boom 141 Gold of the Black Hills and its Influence on Settlement .... 1 43 The Great Dakota Boom 14 6 Admission of South Dakota to Statehood 155 Wet Years and the Return of Good Times 159 Recent Years 160 Summary of Settlement 16 0 Bibliography of Literature Cited 163 REPORT OF STATE GEOI^OGIST Letter of Transmittal 180 Introductory 181 Field Work 181 Service Bureau 182 Museum 182 Accessions 183, 186 Publications 186 Relation of the Survey to the War 186 Miscellaneous Activities 187 Needs of the Survey 188 The Geography of South Dakota CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTORY Location, p. 7; Shape, p. 8; Area, p. 9; Boundaries and their selec- tion, p. 9. GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE South Dakota is nearly equally distant, about 1300 miles, from the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, having approximately the same longitude as North Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, and central Mexico, and in mid- latitudes, having, approximately the same latitude as Oregon, Wisconsin, southern Ontario, New Hampshire, northern Italy, and south-central Manchuria. The forty-third parallel forms most of the southern boun- dary of the state; the northern boundary is near the forty-sixth. The geographic center of North America probably is within the state. The eastern part of the state is in the Prairie Plains, most of the remainder in the Great Plains; an outpost of the Rocky Mountains (the Black Hills) occupies much of the southwestern quarter. The location of an area is of very great geographic importance. All large areas differently located differ in regard to climate, geology and mineral resources, topography, political and industrial relations, and the stage of the development of the area. The location in the northern Great Plains and Prairie Plains of the United States determines (1) the general type of climate (marked seas- onal changes, uncertain rainfall,) (2) the general plan of the topography (the Great Plains section is a gentle piedmont slope, the Prairie Plains section has been glaciated), (3) that over wide areas the rock strata are nearly horizontal but that in the region of the Black Hills the strata are disturbed and ores are found, (4) that the population is English- speaking, chiefly Teutonic, and progressive, (5) that the area long was on or beyond the frontier and still is so in respect to manufacturing, and (6) that the major activities of the population are grain growing and grazing, results of the factors just enumerated. South Dakota as a Frontier Area Although the southeastern corner of the state was settled in the '50's and '60's, and most of the eastern third by the end of the 'SO's, much of the free land of the western half was not appropriated until after lOOT). The experience and opinions of the pioneer "homesteaders," many of whom were poorly prepared for the hardships encountered and who in many cases were but temporay sojourners in the state, have influenced greatly its reputation. The states lying east of the longitude of Dakota, because of greater and more reliable rainfall and closer proximity to markets, have a relatively dense population, with better developed industries and larger cities. Directly west of South Dakota, there has been no great develop- ment until quite recently. The chief development was for a long time to the north (Washington) or south (California) of the latitude of this state, which is a partial exjilanation of the fact that although North Dakota and Nebraska had transcontinental railroads hy 1890, the first THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA one across South Dakota was completed in 19 09. The major cause of this lack is, however, the character of the Rocky Mountain barrier. The Black Hills intercept the southern half of the state, while west of the northern half there are no easy passes across the main chain. The development of adjacent and neighboring states to the north and south has been similar to that of South Dakota, their trade and travel using east-west routes. Consequently there has been no great demand for north-south railroad transportation across these states and until quite recently most of South Dakota was relatively inaccessible by rail from either North Dakota or Nebraska. The Black Hills formerly were more closely associated commercially with Nebraska than with eastern South Dakota, because until 19 07 the only railroads into these Hills were from the south. Only since the building of the Puget Sound extension of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railroad (1907-09) has territory outside of South Dakota been commercially tributary to that state, as parts of southwest- ern North Dakota now are. The commercial outlet of South Dakota has been towards the east. The grain exported has reached its chief market, the eastern states and northern Europe, by way of Chicago or more recently by way of the Great Lakes from Duluth to Buffalo and beyond. With the great devel- opment of the flour mills at Minneapolis and the increase of lake trans- portation which followed the deepening of shallow parts of the channel, notably the construction of larger locks at Sault St. Marie, the latter route has gained in importance. The live stock went chiefly to the great slaughtering houses at Chicago until the passage of the 26 hour law gave Sioux City an advantage. i Sioux Falls became an important pork packing center in 1911. South Dakota has no great advantages for wheat and cattle raising over several other areas likewise chiefly engaged in growing these pro- ducts, and therefore has developed no faster than they, and still has a relatively small population (about 650,000.) Its location affords the state some slight advantages over its north- ern, western, and southern neighbors. The corn belt, as that term is used by the Federal Department of Agriculture, extends a considerable distance into South Dakota, but not into North Dakota. The temperature is somewhat lower than in Nebraska, and in this respect, in sections of the two states having similar precipitation, conditions are more favorable for vegetation in the northern state. Hail and tornadoes are less fre- quent than farther south, and blizzards rarer than in North Dakota. South Dakota has more rainfall and is nearer to the great eastern mar- kets than are Wyoming and Montana. Shapo In shape South Dakota is a rectangle imperfect because of Lakes Traverse and Big-Stone which indent the northeastern corner, and the river boundaries of the southeastern corner. The average length (east-west) of South Dakota is 370 miles (ex- treme length, 3 80 miles), and the average width (north-south) about 200 miles (extreme width, 238 miles.) The shortest distance between New York City and Washington D. C, and between Copenhagen and Berlin is, in each case, about 200 miles; between Berlin and Stockholm about 370 miles, and between Buffalo and Boston about 400 miles. These figures give some idea of the area of the state. The rectangular shape of South Dakota, with the greatest dimension east-west, is in part the result of the commercial relations of the state. ^A Federal statute which requires that live stock en route to market must be fe'd and watered at intervals not exceeding- 26 hours. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Since the chief markets are to the east, the chief lines of communication run east-west and tend to unite communities along them. Nothing unites communities north or south of such lines so closely. The lesser width is approximately equal in hours of railroad travel to the greater length. Except on a single line (Yankton to Aberdeen) it requires about as long to cross the state from north to south as it does from east to west or in some places even longer. Chicago can be reached from many stations in eastern South Dakota in less time than it takes to reach many stations less than half as far away to the north or south. The state extends just far enough westward to include the important mining part of the Black Hills. This mountain mass introduces diverse elements in topography, climate, vegetation, rock formations and industry, and is chiefly responsible for the greater diversity found in South Dakota than in the neighboring states of Xortli Dakota, Iowa and Nebraska which have no mountainous area. Different points of view have been developed among the people engaged in mining, grazing on the plains, large scale agriculture in parts of the northeastern quarter, and mixed farming. This diversity is a factor of economic and social strength, but it complicates legislative problems, since representatives from diverse sections and occupations are in many cases unable to appreciate the general needs. Area The area of the state is 7 7,615 square miles or about fifty million acres, of which 7 47 square miles aro covered permanenttly by rivers and lakes. This 747 square miles of submerged land is in contrast with 3,824 square miles for Minnesota and 4,447 for New England. The state has approximately the same area as Nebraska, Kansas, or Minne- sota, or as New England with New Jersey and Delaware added. South Dakota is 50 per cent larger than the combined areas of the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, and Switzerland, and is almost as large as Great Britian (England, Scotland, and Wales.) From these comparisons some suggestion as to the possible signifi- cance of the area cf South Dakota may be obtained. Of course its location and resources are not at all on a par with those of Great Britian, for example, but it seems evident that in the distant future, when the resources of the state are completely utilized, it may support well a population several times as great as it now possesses. Boundaries Geographic factors influenced the establishment of at least the northern, eastern, and southern boundaries. In territorial days (before 1889) the chief factor in regard to the determination of the boundaries was perhaps the location of this area near or beyond the western limit of compact settlement. The Missouri River, conspicuous and well-known, long served as a boundary of terri- tories. The following enumeration of territorial boundary changes in many cases is suggestive of geographic influences in the locations of boundaries. Between 1803 and 1812 Dakota was l)art of the Louisiana Terri- tory. Between 1812 and 1861 the section west of the Missouri River was included in Nebraska Territory. The section east of the Missouri belonged, successivelv. to the territorv of Missouri (1812-1834). Mich- igan (1824-1 83iPO. Wisconsin (1836-1838). Iowa (1838-1849) and Min- nesota (1849-1858). From 1858 to 1861 it was unorganized, and known as the "Land of the Dacotahs." Dakota Territory, as organized in 1861, included what now are North and South Dakota, most of Montana, and I)arts of Nebraska and Wvoniing In 1863 it was reduced to approxi- mately what is now North and South Dakota. In 1864 it was again 10 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA extended, but a permanent reduction was made in IStJS. Minor changes along the Nebraska-South Dakota boundary were made in 187 0 and 1882.2 The Eastern Boundary. The eastern boundary of Dakota Territory was the western boundary of Iowa and Minnesota, in other words, tlie Red River, Lake Traverse and Bigstone, the meridian south from the end of the latter lake to Iowa and the Big Sioux Rivor to its junction with the Missouri. The Red River of the North nearly follows a meridian for a long distance. The fact that its source is in Lake Traverse increases its sig- niflcancG as a natural boundary since Lakes Traverse and Bigstone are the longest lakes for manv miles, and were of importance as sites of Indian settlements with which there was fur trading before 1750. A short distance south of the end of Lake Bigstone, the Big Sioux River, also an important stream in the early fur trade, having been visited by the French before 17 00,3 comes to approximately the same meridian and continues south near it to the Missouri River, which stream in turn flows southward into the state of Missouri. This combination of waterways forms a rather striking geographic boundary line. As the area between this dividing line and Wisconsin and Illinois was sufficiently large to permit the creation of two average sized states between Missouri and Canada, it was rational that this strongly suggested north-south line should have been adopted as the western boundary of Iowa and Minnesota. The absence of a geographically suggested boundary either to the east or west of this one and still sufficiently near to it so that the territory to the east as far as the Mississippi would give averaged- sized states,* increased the likelihood of the choice of this line. In the adoption of boundaries for states, Congress was influenced greatly by the boundaries as well as the areas of older states. In several cases the same or approximately the same meridians or parallels are used as parts of the boundaries of three or more states, and other parts of streams which formed the boundary for parts of older states in many cases wetre taken advantage of in bounding younger states. Iowa, as admitted in 184 5, had for its western boundary approxi- mately the meridian which formed much of the western boundary of Missouri; but in 184 6 it was extended westward to the Missouri and the Big Sioux rivers. The rather sharp western bend of the Missouri near the mouth of the Sioux doubtless was a factor, in addition to that of the area, favoring the choice of the lesser stream as a boundary. ^ -Gannett, H. : The Boundaries of the United State.s and the several states and territoi-ies. Bull. 226, U. S. Geol. Sur., pi>. 117-132, especially p. 129, Wash- ington. 1914. ^Robinyon, Doane: A Brief History of South Dakota, p. 22, (New York, 1905). ■iHad the relatively iiisig-nificant Dakota River, but slightly known in 1846, when the jire.stnt western boundary of Iowa was established, been chosen, the area to the north of Iowa would have been more than 115,000 square miles, about 35,000 square miles larger than Minnesota, and greater than any states then admitted except Texas. In 1846 there was great ob- jection in Congress to the making of states of large size. "The boundaries of Iowa, as provided by Congress in 1845, gave it an area much smaller than its present one. The reason for this small size was the desire on the part of a majority in Congress to carve many, rather than few, states out of the free territory". The people of Iowa so strenuously objected to this restricted area that they twice rejected the constitution offering ad- mission with these boundaries. They demanded, instead, the so-called "Lucas boundaries", by which the Missouri River formed the western boundary and the northern boundary extended northeast from the mouth of the Sioux River, including in Iowa several counties now in southeastern Minnesota. The basis for these demands were, (a) the desire for a larger area, and (b) the desire for the "natural" boundary afforded by the Missouri River The present boundary was a compromise offered by Congress in 1846. The parallel of 43° 30' was followed from the Mississippi River to the Sioux River. Thus THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 11 When Minnesota was about to be admitted in 1858, the choice of its western boundary probably was influeaiced by the fact that the meri- dian followed approximately by the Red • River and Lake Traverse was approximately the one roughly followed by the rivers which form the western boundary of Iowa and part of Minnesota. '> The Western Boundary. The western boundary is the meridian 27° west of Washington, D. C. (approximately 104° west of Greenwich.) It is not known that geographic factors directly determined the selection of this particular meridian. The fact that it passed through the mouth of the Yellowstone River, near which point was located the then im- portant Fort Union, suggests that they did, but search in U. S. House and Senate Documents, the Congressional Globe, and elsewhere has failed to reveal the cause for the choice of this meridian. During 1863 and 1864 it served as the western boundary of all the Dakota Territory. During the latter year the Territory was extended greatly westward south of thti 4iith parallel. In 18 68, when Wyoming Territory was formed, this meridian again became the sole western boundary. In 1867 the western boundary cf northern Nebraska was established on this meridian, so in adopting it, Nebraska followed Dakota. The Southern Boundary. The southern boundary of Dakota Territory was established in 1861 when the Territory of Nebraska was divided. The 4 3rd parallel was followed to the Keiva Paha River, which was fol- lowed to the Niobrara River, which in turn was followed to its junction with the Missouri, which formed the rest of the boundary. In 1882, the unsatisfactory nature of a boundary determined by small, crooked streams was realized, and the 43rd parallel was made the boundary east- ward to the Missouri River. In 1870 a minor adjustment, made desir- able by the shifting of the main channel of the Missouri, was made,, and a small area was ceded to Nebraska. It may be conjectured" that the choice of the 43d parallel was maae (1) because it onproximately extends the line of the big eastward bend of the Missouri River, (2) it nearly follows the divide between the White and Niobrara River, (3) it is just south of the southern border of the Black Hills. The Northern Boundai'>\ The Territory of Dakota extended north- ward to the Dominion of Canada. It was divided in 1889, into two states, along the seventh standard land survey parallel and a west- ward extension of this parallel. This line is four miles south of 46° north latitude. Its choice made the division of townships unneces- sary, a division which would have been necessary had the 4 6° parallel the area demanded by lowans was reduced in the northeast but extended by about one-third the amount of this reduction in the northwest. (Sham- baush, r.. F. : "The History of the Constitutions of Iowa", pp. 256-2S4, 206- 317. an'l his "Maii.s showing the Boundary History of Iowa", la. Jour, of Hist, and T^nlitics, Vol. 2, p. 374. i;)04.) "Th<> enablinsf act of Dec. 1S,^)G. gave the west boundary as the Red River, La)on which Watertown. Brookings, and Sioux Falls are now located. (Winchell, Alex N.: "Minnesota's lOastern, Southern, and Western Boundaries." Minnesota Hist. Soc. Coll.. Vol. X, pt. 11, pp. 677-687; and the "Consressional Globe" for Jan. .31-Feb. 2.''). 18.'')7.) "Search in government documents, publications dealing- with Nebraska or Dakota and elsewhere has failed to disclos'^ an>' discussion of the refi'^-ons for the selection of this precise boundary. The choice was made by the com- mittee on territories, whose deliberations were not recorded. The ch.airman of the committee had travelled extensively throuerh the west and in his speeches in Congress repeatedly showed an appreciation of geographic factors. 12 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA been followed. It also divided the territory approximately into halves. Geographic influences w^hich worked for the division of Dakota were (1) its large area — apprbximately twice the average size of the American states of today and nearly three times the average size of those which had been admitted already. North and South Dakota combined would have an area nearly three times that of the present medium sized states, such as Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin. (2) The community of interest between the more densely settled sections was very weak, because of the lack of communication. The lower (north- ern) portion of the Red River Valley was the first part of northern Dakota to be settled, while it was the extreme southeastern corner of southern Dakota which was first settled. Between these settle- ments was a tract nearly 400 miles in width, long sparsely settled, and crossed by neither navigable streams nor, until after 1887, by a railroad. With the coming of railroads, many lines which enter North Dakota came from Minneapolis — St. Paul, already a fairly im- portant industrial center, while two of the more important lines which enter South Dakota came through Sioux City which is nearly due west from Chicago, a great railroad center. The chief railroad systems in South Dakota are the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul, the Chicago and Northwestern, and the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, while in North Dakota the chief ones are the Northern Pacific, the Great Northern, and the Sault St. Marie. Each of these lines has little or no mileage in the other state. Even today, as already remarked, the railroad communica- tion between the two states is poor. (3) Many of the people predicted that what were then the more densely populated regions would remain widely separated by sparsely settled stretches. (4) A non-geographic factor was the selfish ambition of many office seekers. Two states meant twice as many state offices. .The geographic factors of large area, lack of communication and widely separated settled areas, were appreciated and made much of by most advocates of division, in constitutional conventions, in instructions to delegates, and in memorials to Congress.s The agitation for division and statehood is treated more fully in Chapter 7, (p. 155.) sRobinson, Doane: Papers relating- to the Division of Dalvota, S. D. Hist. Coll., Vol. IV, p. 56, 1908. CHAPTER TWO CiEOIXKlY.i .The geologic formations have influenced (a) the topography and drainage, (b) the soil, and (c) the character and distribution of the mineral resources. Most of South Dakota is underlain by nearly horizontal strata of poorly consolidated, and in most cases, relatively recent geologic forma- tions. The accompanying geologic map2 (Fig. 1) shows the general dis- Fig. 1. Geological Map 1. Granite. Quartzite, Schists 4. Shale 2. Sandstone, Shale, Limestone 5. Sandstone, Shale, Lignite 3. "Redbeds," Sandstone, Shale, Chalk, 6. Clays, Marls, Sands. tribution of the principal formations. It is efvident from the map that, geologically, the state is an irregular basin with older formations out- cropping at the east and west. The Black Hills form the most striking geologic feature. In these hills, formations representing nearly all per- iods up to the Tertiary outcrop in concentric rings around a core of very ancient schist and granite. 3 In the southeastern quarter of the state (Sioux Palls to Mitchell) old quartzite outcrops at various points. Around it are Cretaceous for- iThe general references to the literature on the geoloyy of the state are: Darton, N. H. : Geology and Water Resources of South Dakota, Water Supply Paper .227, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1909. Darton, N. H.: The Geology and Water Resources of the Great Plains. Prof. Paper 32. U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905. Todd, J. E.: A Preliminary Sketch of the Geology of South Dakota, Bull. No. 1, S. D Geol. Survey, 1894. Todd, .T. B. : The Hydrographic History of South Dakota, Vol. Xlli. Geol. Soc. Am., pp. 27-40. 1901. -Based on Darton's in Water Supply Paper No. 227. ^N. H Darton's reports on the Geology and Water Resources of the Black Hills are authorities. The southern half is treated In Part IV of the 21st Annual Rei)ort of the U. S. Geol. Survey, 1901. and the northern part in Prof. Paper 65, 1909. Several Geologic folios. (Nos. 8.'., 107. 108. 127, 128, 164, treat- ing of most of the Black Hills have been issued. 1902-1909.) 14 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA mations.-i In the northeastern corner of the state, Pre-Cambrian granite is surrounded by shale and chalk of Creteceous age. The youngest ex- tensive formation aside from the glacial drift of the eastern half of the state, is in the region between the Black Hills and the Missouri River, and is of Late Tertiary age. (a) The relationship betw^een the geologic formations and the topo- graphy and drainage is very intimate in the Black Hills region. The Hog-back-rim (a cuesta) due to the outcropping of resistant sandstone (Dakota and other formations) ; the Red Valley within the Cuesta, on the outcrop of softer shales (Spearfish red-beds) ; the Limestone Plateau, surrounding the core of the Hills, cut by superb canyons; and the "parks" on the crystaline rocks of the central mass are the larger features show- ing this relationship. The buttes of the plains owe their existence in part to more resistant lenses of rock. Striking illustrations are the "tepee buttes," due in certain places (in the Pierre shales) to lenses of fossil shells, and in others (in the Fort Union formation) to lenses of chert. Bad-land topography appears to be developed best on certain Tertiary formations; at any rate it is associated with irregularly consolidated clays, marls and sand. There are numerous illustrations of the adjustment of drainage to structure, and to formatious of unequal resistance. Fig. 2. A Generalized Soil Map (b) A comparison of the soil map of the state (Fig. 2) with the geologic map shows a noticeable correspondence in the distribution of certain soil types and geologic formations. In the field the several geologic formations in many places may be recognized by the soils to which they give rise, even when the rocks are not exposed. The soils vary strikingly in color as well as in texture and in tendency to crack. Conversely, knowing the underlying formation in any given region, a *U. S. Geol. Surv., Parker. Alexandria and Mitchell Folios. ^Todd, J. E.: Hvdrosraphic Historj^ of South Dakota, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. XIII, 1901, pp. 27-40. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 15 reasonable prediction can be made as to the nature of the soil. Five striking cases of correspondence between soils and geologic formations are (1) the gumbo derived from the P.erre shale, (2) the red sandy- loam developed from the Spearfish red-beds, (3) the light colored silt- loam from the White River formation, (4) the sandy soil of the dunes associated with the Rosebud formation, and (5) the clay-loam developed from the glacial drift. The eastern half of the state has a rather uniform type of soil because of the glaciation of that section. The glaciers rather thoroughly mixed the ingredients derived from the underlying rocks. The drift contains in most places so little stratified material that most of the drift can be classed as till. The character and distribution of the mineral resources are deter- mined in general by the rock formations, as will be pointed out in the- next chapter. CHAPTER THREE MINERAL RESOURCES Waters, p. 16; Clays and Cements, p. 21; Building Stones and Road Materials, p. 22; Mineral Fuels, p. 24; Ores in the Black Hills, p. 24; Miscellaneous Mineral Products, p. 26; Soils, p. 26. The mineral resources of the states are varied. i The Black Hills are especially rich in ores and have yielded to date about 200 million dollars' worth of gold. For many years South Dakota ranked third among the states in the production of this metal, but recently it has taken fourth place. South Dakota leads the states in the production of lithia, and ranks third in the production of mica. There is a great variety of structural materials, most of which are present in large quantities, and there are somewhat extensive lignite deposits in the northwestern quarter of the state. In much of the state flowing wells may be secured at no great depth and have been of enormous value. Fig. 3. Map indicating the approximate area in which artesian flows may be obtained. Non-flowing artesian wells may be secured in all areas except parts of the Black Hills and the eastern border of the state. I. Artesian and Other Waters 1. Artesian Wells.- Artesian weJls are deep wells in which the water rises notably, in many cases flowing out of the well. In about half the area of the state (Fig. 3) a bountiful supply of pure water can be ob- 'The more important literature dealing with this topic was found to be two papers in Bull. 3. S. D. Geol. .Survey. 1902. O'HarrP. C. C. : The Mineral wealth of the' Black Hills, and, Todd, J .B : Mineral, Building Materialc, Fuels and Waters of S. D. The several Geologic folios, numerous volumes of the Mineral Resources of the U. S. issued annually by the U. S. Geol. Survey and the other bulletins of the U. S. and S. D. Geological Surveys and "The Mineral Industi-y" (annual) also afford .some data. -The chief references to literature upon the artesian wells in S. Dak. are: Darton, N. H.: The Geology and Underground Waters of S. Dak., Water Supply Paper 227, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1909. This summarizes and revises data given in the following less general reports: Darton, N. H.: Preliminary Report on THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 17 tained at little expense. In many cases the first cost of the well is the only cost for many years, there being no expense for pumping in the case of flowing wells. At this time (191S) there are more than 5000^ wells flowing con- stantly, and of this vast quantity of pure water only a small portion is used. The waste would not matter if the supply of water were inex- haustible, but we are far from sure that it is. Already many well^ yield less than formerly, and the flew from some has stopped entirely. Prob- ably in many cases this is due to the wells becoming clogged, or to faulty construction ; but in many cases it seems to be due to the local depletion by the many wells of the water supply stored up through the ages in the porous strata beneath the surface. ^lost artesian water has moved for great distances, in some places hundreds of miles, under ground. Much of this movement is by slow percolation during which the water has become germ-free. In most cases the water ente«rs the porous, sandv "water-bearing" layer in some region where the layer is near the surface, and flows down under a more or less impervious layer. In the artesian district, flowing or "tubular" wells are obtained from four different horizons, ranging from 60 to more than 3 000 feet in depth. The shallower wells (60 to 200 feet) are from sands which in a number of localities are found at the base of the glacial drift or "bowlder clay." Flowing wells from this horizon are common in the Dakota River flood- plain, near Artesian in Sanborn county, and at a number of other points. Most of the shallower (100 to 400 feet) artesian wells are from a layer of sandstone in the Bentcn shale, which underlies the drift or both drift ' and chalk, where chalk is present. I The great source of flowing wells is the Dakota sandstone, from ' which nearly all the great flows come. This stratum in places is some- , what more than a hundred feet thick, and is filled with water. It comes to the surface as a ridge around the Black Hills and elsewhere along the I foothills of the Rocky Mountains, several hundred miles from most of the , wells and many hundred feet higher. Pressures as great as 2.50 pounds I to the square inch* have been recorded at some of the wells. The largest I well, at Aberdeen, flows 2,000 gallons a minute (more than 100,000 bar- i rels per day), a quantity suflficient to supply the needs of a city with a ( population of 15,000. I The depth from the surface to the Dakota sandstone varies in dif- ( ferent parts of the state, as well as with the relief of the surface. In I the Dakota Valley its depth averages about 900 feet, ranging from 200 feet near Mitchell to 1,500 feet near Aberdeen. The only well east of I the Missouri that is much deeper than 1,500 feet is that at Gettysburg j (2,130 feet). West of the river there are several wells more than 2,000 1 feet in depth, and one at Edgemont, 3,000 feet. The latter penetrates ! a sandstone lower than the Dakota. Nearlv all the cities and villages J in the artesian area now secure their wafer supply from artesian wells. Artesian Waters of a Portion of the Dakotas. 17th Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, Pt. II; Darton, N. H. : New Developments in Well-Borins" and Irriga- tion in eastern S. D.. 18th Ann. Rept.. U. S. Geol. Survey; Darton. N. H. : The r?ellefourche folio (No. 164). 190tt; Todd, .T. E.: The .Xberdeen-Redfield folio No. 16.5. 190!t; The Elk Point folio (No. 156), 1906; The Geology aiivi Water Resources of portions of southeastern S. T^ak., and of the lower .Tames Valley, Water Sui)i)lv Papers, No. .•?4 and No. 90, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1900. 190t. These two water supply T>apers incori)orated many of the results secured while the making of the Parker and Olivet and the Alexandria, Mitchell, DeSmet and Hui-on folios. "In .Tan., 1912, T4on. Peter Norbeck, of the firm of Norheck and Nickelson. ,the leadinpT well-drilling firm in the state, and one which keeps a scor(> of outfits at woi-k. made this estimate. '"I'robablv the greatest recoiderl artesian pressure in the world." (.Tohn- son, Willis, E. : Dakota: A Republic «f Friends, p. 43. (Pierre, 1911). Sig. — 2. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Most of the artesian waters have a temperature higher than the average temperature of the area for the year. In the Teton River Valley wells are distinctly warm, having temperatures of about 130° Fahr. The Uses of Artesiim Wells. It was not until the middle 18 80's that successful attempts to secure wells on the uplands were made. For several years before there had been a few wells in the Missouri River flood-plain. 5 The first was completed at Fort Randall in what now is Gregory county, in 1881. « Until the late 90's the cost was beyond the means of most farmers." Imijrovements of methods which greatly de- creased the cost of construction, combined with good crops and a rapid rise in land values during the years following 189 8, led to a great increase in the number of wells, a vast majority of which have been drilled since 1900. The present cost of artesian wells of ordinary diameters (2-3 inches) is about 50 cents per foot. The wells drilled in the 80's (with diameters of 5 to 9 inches) averaged more than $2.50 per foot. The most important use of artesian water is for domestic and stock purposes. In many places pipes from the) flowing wells furnish running water to buildings, gardens and lawns. In nearly all cases the water supply furnished is constant, convenient, abundant and wholesome, and in most cases is quite in contrast to that which was obtained before such wells were secured. The most extensive use of water from artesian wells is for watering live stock. In most cases artesian water is preferred by stock because of its temperature, which is much warmer than air temperatures during the winter, and much cooler during the summer, and in many cases because of its appreciable mineral content. The pressure of many wells is sufficient to throw a column of water to the top of the taller buildings of the region, and therefore such flow- ing wells may be an effective aid in ordinary fire-fighting. The pressure has been used in a few scores of places for the production of power which has been used to run grinding mills, electric lighting plants and various sorts of machinery. The relatively low pres- sures (50-100 lb. per square inch) of most wells, the numerous cases of marked decline from the original pressure, and the competition of coal, gasoline and kerosene have discouraged the use of flowing wells for power. Usually severe droughts occurred in the late 80's and early 90's and led to much speculation as to the practicability of using flowing wells for irrigation. Some very restricted areas, chiefly garden patches, were irrigated, s but artesian wells have been used to date to a very slight extent only for irrigation. Four factors appear to be responsible for this slight use: (1) In the artesian basin, periods during which irriga- tion is needed are often separated by months and years. Most farmers run the risk of an occasional short crop rather than prepare, and keep ready for use, an expensive irrigation plant with ditches which would interfere with the fre*e use of 'the land in ordinary years. (2) Most of the flows are in the glaciated area where the topography is highly unfavorable for extensive irrigation. There are very few reservoir sites from which a large amount of water can be conducted by gravity on to an extensive gentle slope. (3) The water in most cases contains a good deal of mineral matter in solution and where large quantities of the water evaporate, tho soil soon is loaded with salts and becomes unsuited to most sorts of vegetation. (4) The volume of water yielded by ordi- ^Yankton was sunplied chieflv from .Vrtpsian wells in 1882, (Polks Gazetteer for Minnesota and Dakota for 188.^. p. 1137. Detroit. 1882). «The first artesian well in the western Part of the state was dug at Belle- fourche in 1892. (Tallent. .\. D. : The Black Hills. St. Douis, 1899). ■'There were about 100 wells distributed tbroush 30 counties bv 1889 The averae-e cost was $5,000 (Hagertv: Terr', of Dak., p. 50, Aberdeen, 1889) 8Darton: 18th Ann. Kept, of the IT. S. Geol. Survey. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 19 nary flows is too small to be effective for the irrigation of considerable areas, unless it has been accumulated, as in reservoirs, for a long period. Tho high rate of evaporation results in a very slow rate of accumulation. Even voluminous flows in most cases are able to maintain a pond only a few acres in extent. The presence of the artesian basin was not appreciated until after most of the area was settled, and consequently settlement was influenced slightly by it. However, land values have been greatly affected by artesian wells, as buyers accustomed to an unsatisfactory water supply readily pay much more for a farm upon which there is a flowing well than for another, even, in many cases, if the latter is located where an artesian well could be obtained at small cost. The lack of a suitable water supply has beeo a strong retarding factor in the settlement of many sections of the state. Artesian wells have contributed to the prosperity of the artesian basin in the several ways already discussed. The advantage which is most appreciated by the hard-headed farmers is the influence of the good water supply upon cattle. Theses thrive much better in pastures having a convenient and altogether satisfactory water supply, than in other pastures. 2. Shallow AVells. Shallow wells now are used but little in the area where artesian wells are obtained readily. The depth to a relatively permanent abundant supply of water varies greatly with the relief, the mantle rock and the topographic location, but for much of the state the depth is between 2 0 and 60 feet, averaging perhaps 4 0 feet. The water from most wells in the Pierre shale and that from many in the glacial clay, has an alkaline taste and in some places is not palatable. Because of the relatively impervious nature of bowlder clay or other clay, com- paratively few "dug" wells in these materials, furnish sufficient water to be considered "inexhaustible" in the popular use of that word. Ac- companying the wide fluctuations in precipitation, the water table rises and falls greatly. Its great amplitude is not appreciated by most farmers, and many wells go dry in periods of drought. At such times water for domestic use may be hauled long distances, even being brought in by train, and cattle may have to go far for perhaps an unsatisfactory drink. Most of the cities and villages not in the artesian basin or in the Black Hills secure their water from shallow wells. Sioux Palls, the largest city in the state, is so supplied 3. Sprins-s.o Springs are scarce in most parts of South Dakota. This is due largely to the relatively impervious clay which mantles much of the surface, particularly most of the glaciated section and that in which the Pierre and Benton shales outcrop (see geologic and soil maps, Figs. 1 and 2). Where porous strata should appear normally, on the sides of the valleys, the overlying clay is likely to have slipped down so as to cover their outcrops, and seal up the water they contain. The light rainfall prevalent over most of the state is another factor not conducive to springs. In the Black Hills, as in most mountainous areas, springs are numetr- ous. There are very large ones at the base of the compact purple lime- s.tone where it outcrops near Tilford and Hot Springs. Other large springs flow from the gravels along ^valleys. In the sandhill districts, notably those in Shannon, Bennett, and Todd counties, there are many surprisingly copious springs along the valleys. A few large springs along the lower course of the Missouri and Dakota rivers receive their water from the artesian basin. This is be- "There are brief cllscu.ssions of spring's in each of the bulletins of tho S. D. Geol. Survey: Bull. 1, p. 61; Bull. 2, pp. 40, 46-47. 109-110; Bull. Z, pp. 12:?-124; Bull. 4, pp. 68-69; Bull. 5, pp. 59-60. 20 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA cause the Dakota Sandstcne, the chief water bearing formation, outcrops in the vicinity. Several flattish-topped buttes in the western part of the state have relatively porous horizontal layers near their tops, and relatively im- l)ervious lavers of rock lower down. At the contact of such layers there are numerous springs in each of the forested buttes in Harding Countv, and in many buttes in the bad-lands, and along the escarpments towards the southern border of the state. In the lignite area of the state there are many small springs whose water, in many cases, is dark- colored though rarely ill-tasting. In Union and Lincoln counties many springs issue between the loess and the drift. Gravel and sand deposits along some lines ot drainage in the glacial period are now sul)terranean watercourses which yield springs. Wes- sington Springs in Jerauld county and several other springs in the glaciated area, esiJecially west of the IMissouri river, are of 'this origin. Springs and Human Geography. In the glaciated area, springs have been used very little and have influenced settlement slightly. This is because nearly all of the relatively few springs are close to the few streams. The loess-covered area in Union and Lincoln counties is an excei)tion. Here springs were used, from the first and were determining factors in the location of many homo.'s. Springs along the east side of the Wessington Hills determined the location of several homesteads, and copious mineral springs led to the location cf the town of Wessington Springs. Nearly all the towns and most of the homes in the Black Hills secure water for domestic purposes from springs, and springs were im- portant factors in the location cf numerous homes in that region. The springs in the buttes are iitiportant in giving rise to perma- nent brooks. Near the mouths of nearly all of the larger valleys in the forested buttes in Harding County, ranch houses have long been located. The springs iii;i the sandhills have influenced settlement only indi- rectly. Ranch houses are located near spring-brooks. Water for domestic purposes is secured from shallow wells, which, in the sand, yield copiously. Severa'. Indian vilages in what was the Rosebud and Pine Ridge Reservations are, or were, located along the contact of the less porcus Wbite River beds and the Rosebud beds, which in many places are sandy. In the case of four of these villages, old Indians stated that the springs were the determining factor in their location. There are several ranch heuses in valleys near the contact between the almost impervious Pierre Shale and the more norcus overlying beis in several counties, notably Tripp, Gregory, and Fall River. 4. >IincM-al Watei-.s.i" The mineral waters of South Dakota are variei. The water of many wells and springs contains sufficient amounts of hydrogen sulphide or of carbonates and sulphates of iron, calcium, magnesium and sodium to be evident to the taste, but the oniv Ircalitv which has become prominent as a resort, largely on account of mineral water, is the Hot Springs region in the southern Black H^'lls. This local- ity long was known to the Indians as "Minnekahta," the name which has been applied by Darton to the limestone with which these springs are associated. There are several large hotels and baths in and near Hot Springs, and the large Federal Sanitarium and the State Soldiers' Home are located there. Mineral waters having an annual value" of somewhat more than $2,n0 0 have been sold during recent years from springs near Hot Snrings and one near Siorx Falls. 5. Streams. The streams are important sources of water for live '"Todrl. J. K.: S. 1). Geo], Surv., Hull. 1, yp 111; v.uW 3 p 121-129 (Ver- milion 1804. 1902). — p. 1-1 i"», (ver THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 21 stock, especially where wells yielding an abundant supply are lacking. Streams have been used but sparingly for domestic purposes, in part because of their muddiness and their great fluctuation in volume. Almost the only streams which are fairly clear, except when ice-covered, are in the Black Hills, in the larger buttes, notably those of Harding County and the Big Bad Lands, or in the sand-hill areas. The minimum flow of each of the strea-ms of the state, except the Missouri River, is small, and the only long streams which flow i)ermanently throughout much of their courses are the Sioux, Dakota, Missouri, White, Teton, Cheyenne, Moreau and Grand rivers. The total length of these streams in the state is about 2,000 miles. Many streams which have their sources in the Black Hills and the sand-hills of Todd, Bennett and Shannon counties, though permanent near their sources, dry up farther down their valleys. 6. Lakes and Ponds. Lakes and ponds are fairly numerous in the extensive glaciated area where streams are few. They have had less value than the streams as sources of water, largely because of the fact that most of them are very shallow. In most cases this means muddv margins, high summer temperatures, and considerable aquatic lil'e, while many of them disappear during the dry seasons. Furthermore, many are covered by ice for a longer period than are streams. Only the larger lakes are sufflciently cool and clear so that they are used exten- sively by stock which has a choice between lake and w'ell water. Ponds and lakes have been used by man himself for domestic purposes taut little, and this chiefly before settlement was well established. Consid- erable quantities of ice. however, have been cut on lakes, and upon pools in the smaller streams. 7. Rainwater. Cisterns have not been used as much as they should* in South Dakota. This is due chiefly to the distribution of the rainfall. Most of the precipitation takes place in a relatively short period. In order to collect most of the rain wiiich falls on roofs, cisterns have to be very much larger than in regions where the rainfall is distributed more evenly. During the long period when but little rain falls, there is in some cases los'^ of water bv seeimge, and a deterioration of the supply retained. Protracted droughts discourage reliance upon cisterns as a chief water supply. Earthern dams have been built across numerous shallow valleys, especially in the western half of the state, and the reservoirs so created are a very important source of the water supply for a large jiart of the state. Numerous small towns secure water for domestic pifl'iioses from shallow wells sunk near such reservoirs. TT. Clays and Cement Materials \^ 1. Clays abound in the state but have been little utilized and have not been systematicallv studied. 12. Although bricks have been manu- factured in the nast somewhat evtens'velv at more th^ri twenty towns, i"* including Vermillion, Yankton, Chamberlain, Pierre, Aberdeen, DeSmet, Madison, Englewood. Hill Citv, and Deadw'ood. the^' have be^n made in recent years only at Bigstone City and Ranid Citv, and many of the bricks made at t^e latter ))lace are of the sand-lime variety The value of the bricks produced duriufr re-cent years has averaered somewhat less than $80,000 a year, of which nearly a third is accredited to sand-lime "bricks. South Dakota has ranked forty-sixth in value of clay products among the states during several recent years. This lew rank is not due "TT. a Gpo) Piirvrv: Minpr"! neKoiM-c''« of the U. «. r'Ofi-12 '2S. D. GpoI. Survey, Bull. 1. t>. 158: P.ull. 2. '). \T?.\ P-uU. %. m. 101-108; Bull. 4, pn. 5.5-56; Bull. 5. n. f^O. The '-tp tistics of nrodnction a^e from "Min- eral T'fsourcps of t»ie TT cj •> t^ P Giol. jsnrvoy, 1907-1912. '^There were 29 hrickyard.s in Dakota in 1887. accordinpr to. MoClure: "Resources of Dakota," v. 27R, ( .\h.rdcfn, 1S8T). 22 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA to scarcity of suitable clays, but chiefly to the expensiveness of fuel and to the small local market. China clay, potters clay, and fire clay are found in the Black Hills region in considerable quantities, but only the last has been developed, and that but slightly. Fullers' earth and volcanic ash appear in the badlands and eastern foothills of the Black Hills. The former has been shipped in small quantities from a point near Hermosa. 3. Cement ^laterials.!* At various places, shale and chalky for- mations suitable for the production of Portland Cement are associated, and a score or more places might be found between Pierre and Yankton along the Missouri River, in the lower Dakota Valley and about the Black Hills, any one of which would be within easy reach of materials, fuel excepted, appropriate for the manufacture of cement. The chief produc- tion up to the present time has been at Yankton, is where in 19 00 some 40,000 barrels of cement were manufactured. The plant was purchased and shut down in 1909 by the "trust," and there is now no production of cement in the state. 3. Gypsum. Extensive deposits of gypsum are interbedded with the Redbeds in the Red Valley which surrounds the Black Hills. They have been worked on a large scale near Sturgis, Rapid City, Hot Springs, and Alabaster. The gypsum is calcined, ground, and made chiefly into stucco (which will set in 8 to 10 minutes) or plaster of Paris (which sets in 45 to 50 minutes.) Dental plaster is made also. The production of gyi^sum has increased very rapidly during recent years, and it seems .probable that it will long continue to increase. Precise figures of the production for South Dakota are not given in "The Mineral Resources of the United States" or in "The Mineral Industry." 4i, Limestone of very pure quality is present in large quantities and in accessible locations at many places in the Black Hills. It has been burned for lime chiefly near Rapid City. The value of the product was $25,000 in 1910 and $37,500 in 1911. Formerly small quantities of chalk were burned and yielded a poor grade of lime in the lower Dakota Valley. III. Building Stones and Road Mateiialsie (1) Granite. Although vast quantities of granite are exposed in the Harney Peak district of the Black Hills, it has little value as a building stone because of its very coarse granular texture. Its distance from railroads and markets would make it now nearlv worthless for building-stone even if the texture were the best. In the northeastern corner of the state, there is a fine-grained granite which recently has been quarried extensively for tombstone and decorative purposes. Most of the somewhat famous Ortonville granite now comes from South Da- kota, instead of from Minnesota." (2) Porphyry. Various kinds of eruptive rocks, popularlv known as porphyries, are widely distributed in the northern Black Hills. Al- though little or no extensive auarrving has been done yet in these rocks, several varieties may be valuable in the future for ornamental purposes. I'Referonces to the literature on Cement Materinls: S. D. Geol. Survey, Bull. 1. pp. 156-157: Bull. 3. pp. 99-101; Bull. 4. p. .56: Bull. .5. n. 60: TT. S. n^u° r,^""'''^- ^Tineral Resources of the U. S.: (Annual): anri O'Harra. C. C: 7-^^ ■/^f'J^^ Resources of the Black Hills, S. D., School of Mines Bull. 8, (Rapid City, 1908). '=The Yankton Portlan'd Cement nlant was claimed to he the lars^est of its * ilnov ^ ^- ^- ^" 1^^2. (Cloug-h, Rev. E. E.) in Seneca Falls, N. Y. Courier for 1892). TT, "JVf Mte^'ature on the Building- Stones and Road Materials is scattered, ine tol>owinp are the more important: The folios of the U. S. Geol. Survey c o" o o VoAo Jit^^"J''"" °* ^''"' previous chapter: Bull ?,, S. D. Geol. Survey, PP. ^.-89. l.H)^ ,/"^ figures on the production are based upon those reported in the annual Mineral Resources of the U. S. Geol. Survey, 1907-1912. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 23 (3) Quartzite. Quartzitos are present in several parts of the Black Hills, and equally hard cherty layers on buttes, notably on Cave Hills, but also on the Bijou Hills, east of the Missouri River. The only quartzite deposit which is developed commercially is that in the south- eastern corner of the state. The rock here has a bright color, in most places some shade of red. It is more easily worked, and yields blocks of larger size than can be obtained from this sort of rock in most parts of the world. It has been extensively quarried at or near Sioux Falls, and Garretson. The foundations and lower walls of numerous buildings were built of quartzite before other satisfactory building stones, notably the Bedford limestone, could be obtained more cheaply. Of late years the quartzite has been quarried chiefly for crushing, for use on roads, and has been shipped extensively as far as Chicago. (4) Bowlders. East of the Missouri River and a short distance wast of it are many scattered glacial bowlders of granite, trap, quartzite, limestone, and other rocks. They are relatively few except in the moranic belts, but there they are found in such abundance that they will lonjg supply the local demands for rough building stone. Within a hundred miles of the Black Hills there are found, especially on the terraces of the streams which head in the Black Hills, many small bowlders and cobblestones. In the future they may be of some value. (5) Marble. There is marble in two or three localities in the Black Hills, but it has been quarried only near Custer. The output to date has been small. (6) Lfimestones. In the Black Hills there are several limestone formations, some of which are locally marble-like, which have been quarried for stone and for lime. There is an abundant and well dis- tributed supply, and it is probable that the limestone of this section will have increasing importance. The value of the annual production during recent years appears to have ranged between $6,000 and $50,000. Precise figures for most years are not given in the Mineral Resources — South Dakota being grouped with other states whose production of lime- stone is low. Chalk. Chalkstone, though it outcrops in the southwestern and northeastern corners of the state, has little economic significance, except along the Missouri between Yankton and Chamberlain, and along the lower tributaries of the Dakota. Formerly it was burned for lime and used as a building stone by the Mennonite colonies, and others of that region. (7) Sand.stones. Nearly inexhaustible supplies of choice sandstones are found in the Black Hills, and varieties suitable for rough building purposes are found in various other parts of the state, especially in the Cave Hills in Harding county. In the Black Hills the more important formations yielding high grade sandstone are associated closely in the iiog-back rim of the Hills. Tests have shown that the Dakota sandstone in manv places is one of the best building sandstones. The National Sanitarium and many other large buildings at Hot Si)rings and elsewhere are made of it. The value of the sandstone quarried in 19 08-12 averaged about $130,000 a year. (8) Sand and Ciravel. In more than three-fourths of the state sand and gravel can be obtained only with great difficulty in sufficient quantities for local needs. In the areas where the Cretaceous clays (Fig. 1) outcroj), gravel and sand are almost lacking, and in the glaciated area they are present chiefly as small pockets of irregular distribution. There are somewhat extensive sandy belts in Sanborn and Brown counties. Good sands and gravels are abundant in the Big Sioux valley. 24 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Thoso in western Sanborn and Brown counties have been eriplainecU" as the result of the sorting by waves of glacial Lake Dakota, but the topo- graphic relations in the termer locality do not support this exnlanation, though no plausible one can be offered. Little of the sand of eastern South Dakota is sufficiently clean to be readily available for structural uses. Most of the sand and gravel used in the towns and cities of eastern South Dakota is transported by rail, much of it long distances. Relatively little of the railroad grades was ballasted until recent years, partlv bp':'ause of the scarcity of e'oo''^ i-^ral supplies of gravel. A short distance south of Mitchell and near Blunt deposits of gravel have been used for that purpose. IV. Mineral Fuels ( 1 ) South Dakota is poor in mineral fuel as well as in fuels of other sorts. Although bituminous coal is present and is mined extefisively on the western side of the Black Hills in Wyoming, it has not been found in workable quantities in South Dakota, though a little is known near Edgemcnt. (2) Lisiiito is found in several parts of the state. Thin seams of it are struck frequently in the eastern part of the state in digging wells, but because of their thinness and the abundance of water, they are not workable. In the northwestern corner of the state, particularly in the northern parts of Harding and Perkins counties, there are large quan- tities of lignite of fair quality. Perhaps a hundred townships (3600 square miles) are underlaid by beds of some value. Seams three feet thick are not rare, and in a few places there are beds ten feet thick. The better grades of lignite make a good stove coal. More energy can be obtained from a ton of lignite burned in a producer gas engine, than from a ton of the best bituminous coal burned under an ordinary steam boiler: so it is not to be despised. Even as stove fuel, its presence has greatly facilitated the settlement of the northwestern portion of the state. Hundreds of "openings' have been made, and the local demand for fuel to a large extent satisfied. It is somewhat doubtful if the deposits ever will be commercially very important in South Dakota, as the seams in most places are thin and overlain by soft shale which makes a poor roof for mines. A somewhat detailed examination of the coal fields of South Dakota was recently completed by the U. S. Geoloigcal survey and the available tonnage of minable lignite given as 1,096,480,000.18 (;?) Natural Ga.«i.i" Gas has been struck when drilling for wells in various parts of the state, and formations which may, in restricted areas, contain considerable suiiplies of gas or oil are widespread. The output has been small and unim])ortant, with the possible exception of the Pierre area, where for nearly 20 years a large i)ortion of the lighting and cooking in Pierre and Fort Pierre was done by natural gas. It comes to the surface dissolved in the water of several artesian wells and is collected in tanks built over them. As a result of decrease in the output, and increase in the population, it is now of relatively little importance. In 1911 it was being used from 41 artesian wells, and had for that year an estimated value of iP17,000. V. Ores in the Black Hillsso (1) CJold. Gold has been by far the most important of the metals I'Todrt, .T. 1'..: Mitchell and Aberdeen-Redfield (p. 13), Folios of lli.- TT s Geol. Survey. 1909. ■n^ignite FieUl of N. W. South Dakota, U. S. G. S., Bull 627 1916 i»Tli(> only fairlv satisfactory treatments of the natural £;as are- Toild J. E.: Rnll. .?. pn. 114-119. 1900; p,„]i 4 ,-,,-, 52..ri4. s n Oeoi Survey 190'' 19ns; 2"0'Harra. C. C. : The Mineral Wealth of the Black Hills, Bull. ' 6^' S ' d' School of Mines, and part of Bull. 3. S. D. Geol. Survey 1902 is the gen- eral reference on the toi^ics treated in this section. Recent nrorluctions is based on stnfstics given in thp Mineral Resources of the U S U S Geol Survey. 1907-1912. or in "The Mineral Industry." (.Annual) ' THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 25 mined in the state. It has contributed more than 90 per cent of the value of the annual product of the mines and quarries and also was important in attracting settlers to the state. It was discovered near Custer by the Custer Expedition in 1874, and near Deadwood late in 187:"). Permanent operations commenced in 1876, before the purchase (for $4,500,000) of the Black Hills region from the Indians in 1877. For several years operations were restr.cted to placer mining. Until 1S85 the Black Hills had no railroad, and machinery had to be freighted long distances, in most cases from Bismark, N. D., Cheyenne, Wyo., or Sidney, Nob. This prevented the building in the Hills of complete plants for the treatment of ores, and such ore as required treatment out of the Hills had to bear the exjiense of ver^^ long haulage. The southern edge (Buffalo Gap) of the Hills was reached bv the Chicago and Northwestern Railroad in 188r>, and Deadwood was entered by the same road late in 1890 and by the Burlington early in 1891. Since 1890 the mining has beoin chiefly of low^ grade ores. The gold bearing ores are found in considerable quantities in the (a) slates, schists and quartzites of Proterczoic age, (b) "cement" rocks or conglomerate of Cambrian age, (c) limestone of carboniferous age; and (d) recent unconsolidated deposits. I'rodiietion of G«ild in 8<>iitli Diikota si«oe 1.S75, Mineral Resources, 1910, I'. S. (iecr deposits which ajipear to be fairly rich are known at various places, especially in the northern Black Hills, but as yet the production has been small, (BO.j'OO lbs. of metal in 1908, 42,000 lbs. in 1909, 23,057 in 1917.) '"The Homestake mills were iiut in operation Jul.v 1, 1878. (Tallent: Tlie Flack Hills, p. 510, St. Louis, 1899). 26 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA (5) Iron ore bodies apparently of some possible future importance are found in various places, and small quantities have been used for fluxing purposes by local smelters. In 1893-94 165 carloads were shipped from Xahant to the smelters of Omaha and Kansas City. (6) Tin is present near Keystone in the southeirn part of the Hills and near Tinton in the northwestern part. Although efforts to develop the deposits have extended over more than 3 5 years, the production up to 1900 probably was not more than 50,000 lbs. of metallic tin. Since that date there has been a small production nearly every year. (7) Tungsten. This reicently valuable metal was discovered in 1899 near Lead and near Harney Peak. The production during that and the following year was about 140 tons. 22 (8) Manganese ores have been discovered at several points. In 1892 19 tons were shipped from Custer county. Antimony, bismuth, nickel, uranium, and several other metals are present in quantities sufficient to encourage prospecting, but as yet have not been valuable commercially. VI 3Iiscellaneous Mineral Products Graphitic slates (pre-Cambrian in age) are abundant in many parts of the Hills, and in several places the content of graphite is sufficiently high to arouse interest in the economic possibilities of the deposits. Sixteen carloads of graphite were ground at the Mineral Paint works in Custer in 1900-01.23 For several years practically all the lithium minerals produced in tha United States have come from the Custer district where the ores are found as lenses in pre-Cambrian pegmatite. The mineral spodumene arousos additional interest because of the vast size of some of its crystals. One showing in the sides of a drift for 36 feet, without break, is re- corded.24 Many have a diameter of more than three feet, and a length of more than six. Mica quarries were exploited extensively during the SO's, and since 1900. The quarries and sorting plants near Custer include some of the larger quantities of high grade mica in that vicinity. Although the "Mineral Resources of the United States" states that South Dakota ranks second among the states, precise figures of production are not available. VII. Soils25 The general distribution of the chief types of soils is shown in Fig. 2. 26 Most of eastern South Dakota has a clay-loam soil derived from the glacial drift of that area. This type is similar to that found in the parts of North Dakota, Minnesota, and Iowa which are free from loess, and has been named by the U. S. Bureau of Soils The Cari-ington Clay-Loam. Over extansive areas this soil is rich in humus, and hence is dark 'colored to the depth of a foot or so, and in depressions and on the lower parts of slopes, to the depth of two or more feet. This type of soil in South Dakota is considered to be superior in fertility to its representatives "O'Harra, C. C: Mineral Wealth of the Black Hills, Bull 3, S. D. Geol. Surv., p. 72, 1902. As yet the U. S. Geol. Survey has reported no production from S. D. 23Ibid., p. 72. ,00."*^^^^®' ^^- ^'•- Mineral Resources of the U. S., U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 608, lss4. ==The more important references to literature on soils are: Coff' G N : i\^^S.°"^T^*^^^"^'^ S°'^ M^>' ^^ Western South Dakota, Report of Field Work for 1909 U. S. Bureau of Soils. 1911. Todd, J. E., and Darton, N. H : US. Geologic Fohos. sections on soils. There is a general discussion of the soils "I eastern South Dakota in McClure: The Resources of Dakota, (.Vberdeen, 2«Based on Coffey's map. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 27 in more humid areas, because nutritious salts are accumulated near the surface by the evaporation of soil moisture in semi-arid regions, while in humid regions the surface layers are depleted of salts by leaching. The soil type perhaps next most widespread is the Pierre clay, derived by the weathering of the Pierre shale which outcrops widely (Fig. 1). In many places this ciay is very compact, and when wet, very tenacious, and is called "gumbo." It does not absorb moisture readily, has a strong tendency to cake when dry, and locally possesses too large a content of certain minerals to be attractive to ordinary plants. For these reasons, gumbo is an undesirable soil, though it yields very abundantly in years when the precipitation falls at opportune times. Small gumbo areas, often popularly called "alkali spots," are found here and there even in the glaciated part of the state, and have been explained as the result of masses of Pierre shale which had been transported by the glacier after the manner in which bowlders were carried.-" Small areas of this sort are being eliminated in many cases by building straw stacks over them. The straw, when decayed, contributes much mould, which counteracts the objectionable elements in the soil. Clay-loams, silt-loams and sandy loams, grouped as "loams" in Fig. 2, derived from many rock fcrmations, are widespread in western South Dakota. For reasons discussed in the chapter on Bio-geography, clay- loams are considered to be relatively the most productive in ordinary "wet years" (clays are most productive in years of unusually favorable precipitation), and silt-loams in dry years. The sandy soils have a fairly rank growth of native vegetation and do reasonably well by crops, but they blow badly during dry years after being broken up. Alluvium is found in nearly all the larger valleys, and in most places is a desirable soil. Large sandy tracts are not numerous, and extensive gravelly areas are found almost exclusively in and near the Black Hills. Ijiicustrine silts have accumulated to considerablo depths in many basins in the glaciated part of the state. Most of the bed of glacial Lake Dakota is very fertile, partly for this reason. Distinctly eolian soils are limited to (a) loess, which caps many hills in Lincoln and northern Union counties, (b) loess-like silt-loam found along the eastern bluff of the Missouri River, and (c) small dune areas in the south-central part of the state along the Missouri River near Elk Point, and at a few other scattered localities. Excepting the sandy parts, eolian soils are in good repute among agriculturists. RowNlers are few except in the terminal moraine areas. In western South Dakota bowlders of a size to interfere with cultivation are of very local occurrence, chiefly on the flood-plains and terraces of streams head- ing in the Black Hills. Scattered fragments of concretions are met with in a few small areas. Belts of land which are ciuite stony, with angular fragments of flint, are distributed sparingly. There are large log-like sandstone concretions (Fig. 4) about some of the buttes in the north- western quarter of the state, portions of which interfere with the tillage of some small areas. "Todd. J. E.: Tbe Elk Point Folio, CSo. ir,6), U. S. Geol. Surv., ITO'; 28 THE GEOGIRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 1 ._;-^ ^ J^l^^^^^^l 1 ^H^B^^^^f^fl^^^^^^^^^l jUi^^M H ^Hl i Fig-. 4. Log-Like Concretion in the Ft. Union Formation, Harding Coun.y CHAPTER FOUR l^HYSIOGRAPHV General F'eatures, p. 29; Prairie Plains, p. 32; Great Plains, p. 39; Black Hills, p. 43. I. General Features Eastern South Dakota is a continuation of the prairies of Iowa and Minnesota. Most of the western half of the state is part of the Great Plains, but in the southwestern corner, an outpost (the Black Hills) of the Rocky Mountains rises conspicuously above the surrounding plains. (1) The Slope. The general slope of the state is from west to east. In the western half of tho state the principal rivers flow eastward and in the eastern half they flow southward. (2) The Relief. The highest point is Harney Peak in the southern Black Hills. This peak is 724 0 feet above sea level, an elevation greater than that attained by any peak in eastern North America. The lowest point is Bigstone Lake in the opposite corner of the state. Its elevation is 9 6.5 feet. The relief of the state is 627 5 feet, exceeding that of any state farther east except North Carolina (6,711 feet), New Hampshire (6,290). and Tennessee (about 6300.) Aside from the Black Hills and the small depression in the extreme northeastern corner, the relief is about 2600 feet or a half mile approx- imately.i Most of the eastern half of the state has a relief of less than 500 feet, and large areas have a relief of much less than this. It appears that the mean elevation of the state is about 2,200 feet, the figure which, according to Murray's calculations, represents the average elevation of the lands of the globe. Out of thc< total area of 77,615 squaro miles there are approximately: Below 1000 feet 2 70 square miles or 0.3% of total area. Between 1000-2000 feet 4 2,300 square miles or 54.5% of total area. Between 2000-3000 feet 23,000 square mile^s or 30% of total area. Between 3000-5000 feet 10,700 square miles or 13.5% of total area. Between 5000-7000 feet 1,380 square miles or 2.8% of total area. (3) Kuf'f'cdiies.s. Though possessing this considerable total relief, most of the state is far from rugged. The chief exceptions are parts of the Black Hills, .parts of the White River and other badlands, and some of the lands along the deeper valleys. Thousands of square miles in the Dakota Valley are nearly level. The total area with slopes of more than 15° certainly is less than 15 per cent of the whole. Even in the Big Badlands along the upper White River more than 80 per cent of the area is tillable as far as slope is concerned since most of the steep-sided buttes are separated widely by ne'arly level stretches. Figs. 5 and C illustrate such a "flat." The Black Hills contain tho largest untillable portion, but even in this mountainous area there are many farms along the fertile valleys and it is estimated that at least 5% of the area may be tilled. 2 (4) Diaina^e. Most of the state lying east of a line which follows approximately the Missouri River across South Dakota ( the line is shown on the soil map, (Fig. 2) was glaciated by the Dakota lobe of the last (Wisconsin) ice sheet, and has the topography characteristic of plains glaciated recently. It is covered by a layer of drift which averages about a hundred feet in thickness. Most of the surface of this part of the state is gently undulating. Exceptions are many nearly flat areas where 'Thp diffprence between 1100 feet in the Missouri Vnllpy near i'Mk Point and 3700 feet on the hipher butte.s w'thout the'RlTk Hill.s. =Prof. .Jenny, fiuoted bv McClure: Resources of Halvota, )>. ir.K, ( AbiTdccn, 1887.) 30 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Fig. 5. A view in the Badlands of Washington County; looking- from Sheep Mountain towards the \\'Tilte River. ^'^'irHgated°w''wo^t^r'«.^!^Lf%'"'''"'^-^ "^ Washabaugh County. The garden i iriigaiea Dy water secured from a copious spring. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 31 former lakes have been filled, and several low terminal moranic belts, which locally are somewhat rugged. The average elevation of the eastern half of the state is about 1500 feet, but in the matter of elevation there are two distinct provinces (Fig. 7.) These are: (1) the broad Dakota Valley with an elevation of approximately 1300 feet, and (2) the east and west coteaus or divides on either side, with an average elevation approaching -'000 feet. These broad divides are mesa-like, rather steep- sided, and nearly flat-topped. The drainage of eastern South Dakota is very poorly developed, and there are thousands of shallow "lake- beds." In the western half of the state, west of the Missouri River, the topo- graphy is in a mature stage of development, tllcugh there are broad terraces and tables, some of which are due to more resistant layers of rock, while others represent the tops of eld peneplains developed in earlier cycles of erosion. On such u])lands the slopes are very slight. The only undrained areas in this part of the state are the very shallow "blowouts" — basins made by the removal of the soil by wind. The rivers have cut rather deep valleys across the plains. Above the general level of the plains there are numerous conspicuous buttes and the Black Hills, while below it are the "badland basins" and most of the bad-land areas. 2. The Physiographic Pi-oviiices Three main topographic subdivisions are rather distinct, namely, the Black Hills, the Great Plains, and the Prairie Plains. The Prairie Plains conveniently may be divided into three parts, namely, (1) the broad valleys in the southeastern corner, (2) the Dakota Valley, (3) the Coteaus, making a total of five subdivisions. The following map (Fig. 7) shows their location. Fig. 7. Physiographic Provinces 32 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA I. THE PRAIRIE PIvAINS (I) The Southeastern River Valleys The lower portions of the valleys of the Sioux, Vermilion and Mis- souri rivers are treated separately from the rest cf eastern South Dakota, because (1) the broad flood-plains which comprise this subdivision are in distinct contrast with the rolling uplands on either side. These valleys lie for the most part some 50-100 feet below the South Dakota uplands, and from 200-400 feet below the adjacent uplands of Nebraska and Iowa. (2) Little of this subdivision was glaciated by the Wisconsin ice sheet, as was the rest of eastern South Dakota. (3) More abundant and reliable rainfall, a higher water-table, and a location which formerly made them more accessible than the remainder of the state from the East, have pro- duced a somewhat distinct agricultural development and have given these valleys a prominence in the state which warrant a somewhat detailed treatment. (a) Position. This irregularly shaped subdivision includes parts of several counties and nearly all of Union County. The limitations here adopted are indicated on fig. 7. The western limit is near Springfield, where the Missouri River leaves its post-glacial gorge — less than a mile wide, and enters a pre-glacial valley several miles wide. Similarly the Vermilion River below Centerville occupies a broad pre-glacial valley, while above that city its valley is much narrower. There is no definite nor- thern boundary in the Sioux Valley. The glacial margin is indistinct, and the topographic changes gradual. (b) Area. The area of this subdivision, is about 2000 square miles, or nearly the size of Delaware. (<) Topofijrapliy. The topography of this region is essentially plane. The elevation of the lowest part, near Sioux City, is 1100 feet. The gradient of the Missouri River in this region is about 6 inches per mile, or but half its average gradient across the state. In this province the Ver- milion River has an average gradient of about 16 inches per mile, and the Sioux, irrespective of the falls and rapids near Sioux Falls, a gradient of more than two feet per mile. In spite of its lesser gradient, the Mis- souri River, because of its greater volume^ has by far the swiftest current. Xaturnl levees are developed sufficiently well in each of the valleys to divert the tributary streams so that the'-r cinter their mains farther down stream than they otherwise would. The Vermilion and Sioux rivers themselves enter the flood-plain of the Missouri River several miles above the points where they join the master stream. The Elk Point quadrangle, within whose area these streams unite, affords therefore an excellent illustration cf the barrier influence of even very low levees. Levees are one of the causes cf extensive marshy lands within the Ver- milion and Sioux valleys. At present the Missouri River in this section is nowhere eroding the bluffs along its left bank, though it is under-cutting the western at many points. This may possibly be due to the influence of the rotation of the earth.- The falls and rapids near the city of Sioux Falls owe their existence to a change in the course of that stream. Instead of continuing its south- westward course, it turns in the city and flows northward over an escarp- ment of Sioux Quartzite. North of the city it turns again and passing around the end of a range of morainic hills which extends a few miles east of the city, continues southward to the Missouri River near Sioux City. "The larger the stream, the less local and temporary factors such as obstructions inllueiice its course. Small streams like the Vermilion and Sioux are thereforo less apt to show a in-edominRnoe of erosion on their west Oluffs than larger streams such as the Missouri River. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 33 Fig 8. The falls of the Sioux River in the city of Sioux Falls. The height of the chief falls is about 20 feet. Fig. Sig. 9. A view across the Sioux River Valley towards the State Penitentiary. —Courtesy C. M. & St. P. R. R. Co. 34 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA This change in the course of tlie Sioux is ascribed to the last glacier. 4 A tongue of the Dakota lobe of ice reached a short distance beyond Sioux Falls from the west, deposited the morainic hills referred to in the preceding paragraph, and damned the pre-glacial course of the river, which, as shown by a broad pre-glacial valley, had been by way of Centerville to the Missouri. The Dalles and Palisades of the Sioux River and Split Rock Creek in Minnehaha and Mcody counties are gorges which these streams have eroded in the Sioux Quartzite. The walls are in places nearly vertical to tho height of from 20 to 40 feet, and pinnacles of this resistant rock give certain evidence that these localitie.? have not been glaciated recently. s Picturesque erosicnal features (Fig. 8, 9) have given this area more than a local reputation for scenic beauty. (2) THE DAKOTA YALLEYfi (u) Location. The Dakota Valley, as this term is used here, in- cludes the broad, nearly level stretch of land which lies between the Weesington Hills, Ree Heights and Coteau du Missouri on tho west, and ^Flgr. 10. The Glacial Moraines. (From .John.son's South Dakota.) ' =P?ofes;n,. 'Vo,?H"^'^f ^^* ^""^ ^5^' U. S. Geol. Survey, 1896, 1899. after fieir].v..m„.^ti^^'V"'®?„'"'' ^}}''^^ Cn^mM<.iiaiii, x^eveiett and he concluded, llacLted pIrioT together, that this area had not been glaciated in the officit Sm^-!.v"'*''V)?i f^n D^l^ota Valley has been mapped by the U. S. Geol- nfovtnp^ P^.i,.T fxT^^'i?^'"^,. '^°''"'' ^^^^^ of areas which are within this: Huron nTi\Y^Ll,' J. E.: Bulletins 144 and 158 of the U. S. Geol. Survey, 1896, 1899. i"For a discussion of valleys that cross the west coteau see various papers by Todd, J. E., the latest of which are "The Pleistocene History of the Mis- souri River" Science, Feb.. 1914; "Glacial Channels in South l)akota," Bull. Geol Soc Am. Vol. 23, 1911; and "the Aberdeen-Redfield Folio," 1909. '■Todd, J. E.: The pleistocene History of the Missouri River, Science XXXTX, PI). 264, 273, 1914. , „ ,, ^ , „ "Todd: Glacial Channels in Southeastern South Dakota, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 23, pp. 463, 470. 1911. isUpham, Warren: Glacial Lake Agassiz, Monog. XXV, U. S. G. S., 18S9. 3 8 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA (1) glacial bowlders floated bv icebergs beyond the margin of the ice sheet, and (2) slight wave-cut terraces. (2) Lakes due to erosion by the ire. Lakes Traverse and Bisstone are the only glacial lakes of South Dakota known to have rock basins. Many lakes on the drift may have been due to local erosion of the drift, or cf the mantle rock which covo"ed the solid rock when the ice came. (3) Lakes due to unequal deposition of drift. To this class belong the vast majority of South Dakota's lakes. Glacial Lake Dakota, 20 which extended about 150 mileG north from Mitchell and had an average width of 3 0 miles or more, was the largest lake of this class. It owed its existence to twc' morainic dams across the Dakota Valley, one near Mitchell, and the other across the former outlet to the northeast leading to the Red River Valley in southern North Dakota. Most of the basins which ordinarily contain water are in the termi- nal or recessional morainic areas. The greater duration or permanence of water in these basins doubtless is favored by the fact that snow, which has been blown perhaps a score of miles across the plains, finds lodgment in the hollows of these more rugged morainic belts. Such hollows occas- ionally are drifted full of snow. Basins tliat continue to hnve no outlet do^ibtless will accumulate sufficient salt to give to the water thev mav contain a brackisii character. The reason why none in the glaciated section of South Dakota have yet reached that stage doubtless is due to (1) their youth, relative to the rate of salt accumulation, (2) to the accumulation of silt, which tends to bury, after each rain, any film of salt which may have been de'posited previously. (3) An additional probably minor factor which will help explain the freshness of the water in the lake-beds of eastern South Da- kota is that during the recurrent periods when the basins are dry, the wind tends to distribute widely the salt accumulated. The last two factors, though operative in western South Dakota, have not prevented the development of some alkali lakes. The glacial drift of eastern South Dakota probably has nearly as much salt in it as have the subsoils of most of the un-glaciated part of the state, as the formations underlying the drift over large areas in eastern South Dakota and North Dakota, whence the glacier came, are the same' as outcrop widely in the un- glaciated part (Geologic map. Fig. 1.) Most lakes are surrounded by a belt of bowlders. These probably were accumulated in the following ways: (a) The erosion of the shore of the lake by waves. The fine material of the drift worn away by waves was sjiread over the bottoms of the lakes, while the bowlders were left at the shore, (b) As the glacier melted back, some of the bowlders which had been in or on the glacier doubtless were floated out on ice- bergs and dropped chiefly near the margins where the icebergs grounded, (c) The thrust of the lake ice, often active in areas where the temperature ranges below 32° are pronounced, tends forcefully to concentrate the smaller bowlders on the margin. If after the lake is frozen over, the temperature falls greatly, as it frequently does in South Dakota, the ice contracts and is not sufficient to cover the lake. Cracks are formed in it, or much less frequently in shallow lakes, the ice is drawn away from the shore. The water which thus is exposed to the cold atmosphere soon freezes, and the lake again becomes ice covered. With the marked rise in temperature which follows the passage of the cold "snap," the ice covering expands greatly and becoming too large for the lake, exerts a powerful thrust on the shore, or buckles up, or both. 22 fT^odd, J. E.: The Abercleen-Redfleld Folio, U. S. Geol. Surv , 1909 -.-. -',1;?°"- •L" ^-.'n-, .^^® Pleistocene History of the Missouri River, Science, A.A.A.1A^, p. Zb 1 , 1914. --Salisl)ury. U. D. : rhysiography, "Work of Lake Ice," (New York, 1908.,) THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 39 Many lake-bed shores are distinctly steep. Their low cliffs at most points not more than a few feet high, probably are the result of the cutting of the waves supplemented by the thrust of the lake ice. II THE GREAT PLAINSs^^ The most extensive physiographic province of South Dakota is the Great Plains (Fig. 7.) This is the long slope from the foothills of the Black Hills and the western border of the state to the Missouri River. (a) The area of the Great Plains in South Dakota is approximately 35,000 square miles or nearly one-half of the state. All of the counties of western South Dakota except Lawrence, lie entirely or partly within this province. (b) Topography. It already has been stated that the western half of the state is in a mature stage of erosion, but that within the province there are extensive nearly level areas, called benches or tables, some of which represent former erosion levels and others the outcrop of more resistant horizontal rock formations. The general gentle eastward slope has been roughened by the erosion of running water. It is interrupted by somewhat deeply intrenched stream valleys, and, more conspicuously, by buttes. (Fig. 11.) The more prominent buttes, named from the southern part of the state northward, are: Porcujiine Peak, Eagles' Nest, Turtle Butte, Sheep Mt., Bigfoot Butte, Cedar Mt., White-Clay, Grindstone, Virginia and Rabbit Buttes, Fox Hills, Castle Rock, Deers Ears and Haystack Buttes. The larger, possessing considerable timber, are in Harding County, and are, in the same order, the Short Pine Hills, Slim Buttes, and Cave Hills. The buttes are mostly on present or recent divides and have per- sisted because they were far from the main streams, and because of the presence of a resistant capping rock. The steep-sided character of the buttes, which in no little degree is responsible for their conspicuousness, is the result of the cap rock, infrequent rains, and wind work. The wind has excavated a distinct depression around the base of many of the buttes, and in all cases has tended to prevent the accumulation of extensive talus. As a result of the extreme steepness, extensive slumping has taken place on the slopes -^References to literature on this province are: The bulletins of the South Dakota Geological Survey all con.sider at least brieriy this province: Bulletin 1 (1894), A I'reliminary Report on the Geology of South Dakota, by J. E. Todd, treats very briefly of tlie plains. Bull. 2 (isys), contains reports by Prof. Todd on reconnoissance trips through southern counties, (pp. 117- 1^5), and into the northwestern corner of the state (pp. 43-68). Bull. 3 (1902) has orief mention of this area in "Mineral Building Materials, Fuels and Waters of South Dakota, pp. 81-130, by J. E. Todd. Bull. 4 (19U8) con- tains preliminary reports upon the geology of the northwest-central portion of Souch Dakota, by J. E. Todd (pp. 13-76, 193-207) and on Gregory and Tripp counties by E. C. Peri.'^ho dip. 82-133). Bull. 5 (1912), dealing with the south-central part of the state, contains reports on the geography by S. S. Visher and on the geology by S. S. Visher and E. C. Perisho (pp. 31-60). Bull. 6 (1914), by S. S. Visher, is upon the biology of Harding County, but contains various references to the geography Darton, N. H., in two government reports upon geology and water re- sources, (Prof. Paper 32 on The Great I'lains. and Water Supply Paper 227 on South Dakota), makes brief mention of this section of South Dakota. O'Harra, C. C. : The Bad Land Formations of the Black Hills Region, Bull. 9, S. D. School of Mines, 1910. Perisho, E. C: Science XXXHl, March, 1911, pp. 463-4 (Harding County, S. D.) Coffev, G. N. : A Reconnaissance soil map of ^^'estern South Dakota, Report of Field Work for 1909. U. S. Bureau of Soils. Todd, J. E.: The Hydrographic History of South Dakota. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 13 (1901), pp. 27-40. 40 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA m Fig-. 11. Thunder Butte, Ziebach County. A typical butte. Note the team and rig near the base of the butte. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 41 of many of the buttes.-* Basins which contain ponds have been produced by slumping on the flanks of Slim Buttes and the Short Pines Hills. The summit areas of the forest-reserve-buttes of Harding Countv and Sheep Mountain in the Badlands total many square miles. Most of the other buttes have very limited flatfish tops, and, therefore, have pro- gressed much further on the road to extinction — the fate of all mon- adnocks. Minor buttes are rather numerous. Mention has been made of the "Tepee Buttes" in the chapter on geology (p. 19.) They are in groups rti certain sections, notably in parts of Harding. Meade, and Fall River counties, and decrease greatly the agricultural utility of the areas affected. (c) Elevation. The 2000 foot contour follows up the tributaries of the Missouri River 15 to 2 0 miles from their mouths, but the diyides are higher than 2000 feet almost to the Missouri RiveT. The highest part of the plains, about 3700 feet, is on the Pine Ridge in Shannon county. About the same ele^vation is attained in the forested buttes of Harding County. The base of the outer rim of the foothills of the Black Hills has an elevation of from 3200 to 3 500 feet. The average elevation of the Great Plains section is perhaps 2S00 feet. 25 (d) The drainage of this province is almost complete. There are five rivers which drain sub-equal areas. From north to south they are (1) Grand River, 26 (2) Moreau or Owl River,27 (3) Cheyenne River, 28 (4) Teton or Bad River, 29 and (5) White River. "o The gradients of these streams are considerable — averaging from 8 to 10 feet per mile. The run-off therefore is very rapid in contrast with the streams in the eastern half of the state. There are water-holes cf two sorts on the plains. (1) the most numerous are small depressions which have been excavated bv the wind. Most of these are only a few yards across and a few inches deep, though some have an area of several acres or more, and a depth of a few feet. Some of the larger ones locally are called lakes — Timber Lake in Dewey County being an example. The prevalent direction of their longer axes is northwest-southeast, from which direction come the stronger and more frequent winds during the seasons when the surface is dry and most easily excnvated. (2) Valley water-holes are also very numerous especially in the upner. shallower, parts of vallpys. Diir-ng times of very heavy rains, even these shallow vallevs are filled with torrents which locally cut out little basins, which contain water for considerable intervals after showers, to the great advantage of mosquitoes, stock, and man. 2'Concernins slumpina- on the Slim Buttes see- Winclr^ster. T>. K.: C^-oss- bprMine: in thf Whito Rix'or Formation of N. W. So. Pak.. .Toi'-. of GpoI., XXT, pp. .'>51-554. 191?!. ConcorninR- other butte';, see r>evi=1in, K. C : '^be OeoloRv of Harding County, S. D. Science. R. S. Vol XXXTTT, n. 46 1. 1011. Corcerniner slumping- alonp- the Missouri River, see Todd, .T. K.: Bull. 4, S. D. Geol. Shrvey. pn. 31. .32. 1908. ^f'Tbf^re are detailed U. S. toposrranhic mans of the section bordering- the Black Hills only. Th" large maps of the stot". Platos T r-nd ^'T. in Bar- ton's "rJeolog-y and Undere-ronnd "V^'^^ters in Soutb Bakota" ("U'ater-Siiiipl.v paper 227. 1909) show contour* of 250 feet interval. ^■So-called by Lewis and Clarl<, because of the imi'osing scenery at its moutb. ^Tho T\'estern Great Horned Owl seems to nest especially plentifully alonpr thp banks anri bli'Ts of this st''eam. 28From "chien." the French word for dofr — a name said to be given be- caus'=> '~'f t*^*:- mar^' '■•rairie dop-s of tVip r^e-ion. 2»The Teton Indians occupied this valley at the time of the earlier voyagers. Lewis and Cl^rk named this stream the Bad River because they were mistreated here by the Indians. The nnme lias persisted because of the b^d reputation of th-^ stream for sudden flooding. ™From the color produced by the erosion of the badland beds. 42 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Badlands.'! Rugged areas, largely barren cf vegetation, are found in various sections of western South Dakota. Surli areas are popularlv called badlands. The Big Bad Lands alcng the White and Cheyenne rivers in Stanley, Pennington, Mellette, Washabaugh, Washington, and Custer coun- ties include perhaiJS 9 5 per cent of the more conspicuous badland areas of the state. Badlands are develoned on the same geolog'c formation near the East Short Pine Hills and Slim Butte in Harding county. Bad- lands on other formations are distributed widelv, especially along the sreams and divides, and about the b^ses of buttes. Badlands are not worthless land°: this is illustrated bv Fig. 6 and proved by many farms and ranches. They were given this name because they were found by the Indians and early explorers'^ to be hard to cross. This is due to three main characteristics: (1) Most of the slopes are very steep, too steep to ascend or descend with a wagon, so that "the walls" and "jump offs" offer great obstacles to travelers unfamiliar with the region.' (2) Many of the small gullevs have vertif-al banks, and in the absence of bridges, it may be necessary to go considerable distances in order to cross them. (3) Surface water in the badlands usually is scanty and uninviting to say the least, though not harmful. Shallow wells generally have good water. The topography of the badlands — and South Dakota badlands are type badlands — is very interesting. The sculpturing is fascinating and suggests cathedrals, towers, statuary, haystacks, the billows of an ocean and many other objects. Clays, marls, and sandstones, many of which are gaily colored, are exposed to view. These varied tints, in most cases reds, salmons or yel- lows, but in some places purples and whites, add greatly to the attract- iveness of badlands. "One anproaching the badlands may gradually a'-cend a rolling, grassv surface, until he suddenly comes to a crest of ridge and finds himself gazing from a height of 200 to 400 feet upon a labvrinth of winding ravines and narrow ridges, which in some places widen into bread buttes capped with tables formed by harder strata or surmounted with slender pinnacles, reminding one of the spires of a cathedral. At other points the harder beds stand out as cornices and buttresses around the more prominent buttes. While this may appear near by, further away he may see graceful rounded domes and ridges, which remind one of hay-stacks or railroad embankments, where they continue as narrow ridges, with their tops extending upon the same level for some distances. "«3 Badlands are developed when certain conditions are combined. (1) The rainfall occasionally must come in heavy showers, or "cloud- bursts" but must not be sufficiently abundant and regular to permit of a close vegetal cover. (2) The materials mu°t be equallv and incom- pletely indurated. In most places they are clays or shales with only relatively thin lavers of sandstone or limestones. In South Dakota the Tertiary clays (especially the Oligocene clays) seem to be most favorable, though the bad-land tvpe of topography is developed in semi-arid regions in many formations, during the early maturity stage of erosion (a third condition.) On the steeper slopes of the badlands there is little vegetation. "'Recent publications on the badlands are: O'Harra, C. C. : The Badland Formations of the Blacli Hills Region, Bull. 9, South Dakota School of Mines. 1910. which summarizes iirevious publications; and Visher S S : The Geo- graphy of south-central South Dakota, Bull. 5, South Dakota Geol. Survey, I'D. l-ef*. 1912: also Visher. S. S. : Erosion in the Badlands, The .Journal of Geography, 1912. s^These areas were called La Mauvaise Terra by early traders, (Hale, Ed. K.: Kanzas and Nebraska, p. 67, N. Y., 1854), and Makochi, (land), Sica, (bad), by the Indians. (S. D. Dept. of Hist. Coll.. Vol. VI, n. 274 1912) asTodd, J. E.: S. D. Geol. Surv., Bull. 1, p. 103, 1894 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 43 This is due to (1) the rapid drying and extensive crumbling of the clay, thus preventing the growth of seedlings. (Fig. 12.) (2) During occas- ionally severe rain storms, the slopes are worn so rapidly that those plants which have obtained a start are undermined and usually killed. Fig-. 12. A rugged part of the B: iiiils, Stanley County Sand Hills A strip a few miles wide along the southern border of Shannon, Bennett and Todd counties is occupied by sandhills similar to those which cover much of western Nebraska. In South Dakota the relief is moderate (about 2 0 feet), there are few lakes, almost none of which are alkaline, and relatively few of the hills are active dunes. Elsewhere in western South Dakota, where sandstones outcrop, notably in Todd, Tripp and Harding counties, there are areas of sandy soil in which, in most places, the local relief is slight, and the movement of sand by the wind is not extensive except where the sod has been destroyed. IIIv THE BLACK HILLS34 The Black Hills mass is a truncated dome about 100 by 5 0 miles in extent, nearly the size of Connecticut, two-tnirds of which is in south- western South Dakota, the other third in northeastern Wyoming. Several peaks, such as Harney, Teriy, Custer, and St. Eimo, rise more than 6,500 feet above sea level. The limestone plattau near the South Dakota- Wyoming boundary is eroded less and is higher than most of the rest of the area, reaching a height of more tnan 7 000 feet 33 Many canyons, ''^There is an extensive literature on the geograpliy and geology of the Black Hills. For a bibliography of 217 titles published before 1900 .see O'Harra. C. C. : South Dakota School of Mines, liuU 4. More than two score "contribution.s" to the subject have been published since 1S99. Dar- ton, N. H.: Preliminary l^escrijjtion of the Geology and Water Resources of the southern half of the Black Hills. 21st Annual Report, U. S. Gtol. Sur- vey, Pt. 4, pp. 489-599, 1901; and The Geology and Water Resources of the Northern Black Hills, Prof. Paper 65, U. S. G. S., 1900, are excellent general treatments. Folios No. 85, 107, 108, 127, 128, 150, 165, of the U. S. G. S. J D Irving: Economic Resources of the Northern Black Hills, U. S. G. S., Prof. Paper No. 26. T. A. Jagger: Laccoliths of the Black Hills, U. S. G. S., 21st Ann. Rpt., Pt. Ill, are more detailed. ^Next to Harney Peak in elevation is the crest of this plateau a few miles to the northwest of this point is unnamed on the topographic maps, but locally is known as "Crooks Tower," (Tallent, A. D. : The Black Hills, p. 104, St. Louis,* 1899). 44 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA some of them more than 1000 feet deep, add much to the picturesqueness of the Black Hills. The Hills as a whole are a mountainous region which has an average elevation of more than 5000 feet, a rugged topography, extensive ex- posures of firm rock, and heavy forests, which as seen from the distance appear nearly black. This area is in distinct contrast to the surrounding less rugged grassy plain developed at an average elevation of perhaps 3000 feet on formations which are in most places poorly consolidated. The Black Hills province is divisible into four distinct physiographic regions, three of which form zones which surround the fourth or central area. These are shown in a generalized cross section (Fig. 13.) Fig-. 13. A Diag-ramatic Cross-Section of the Black Hills (2) The outermost are the hog-back ridges fcuestas) which form the foothills. Their crests reach an altitude of 4500 feet, and their slopes are too steep for cultivation. (3) "The Red Valley," some • 800-1000 feet lower, is in most cases only two miles or so wide, and is largely tilled. (4) The "limestone country" zone, varying in width from two to more than 15 miles, and averaging nearly 6000 feet in elevation, forms a sort of plateau into which canyons are cut. The more notable canyons in South Dakota are those of Rapid, Boxelder, Elk and Spearflsh Creeks, and Fall River. The limestone country is extensively forested but has some farms on terraces and on the gently sloping summit portions. (5) The more open "park area," developed on the schist, slate, and igneous rock, has many broad valleys lower than the limestone plateau, but includes the higher peaks such as Harney, Terry, and Custer. There is a good deal of cultivated land in the broader valleys. The drainage of the Black Hills is by tributaries of the Cheyenne River, forks of which nearly surround this area. The north fork is known as the Bellefourche River. The chief streams named from the south northward are Fall River, French Creek, Spring Cree.k, Rapid Creek, Box-elder Creek, Elk Creek, Spearfish Creek, Red-water Creek. Rapid and Spearfish creeks are the larger. The gradients of the streams are what might he expected in a low mountainous area. Falls, however, are infrequent. A tributary (the little Spearfish) falls over a limestone deposit some 3 0 feet into Spear- fish canyon. 3" Fall river has a low fall over a resistant ledge of rock. Sink holes are few, and confined mainly to the thin limestone over- lying the red-beds. There are caves, however, in the other limestones. Crystal Cave in Elk Canyon and Wind Cave-" near Hot Springs are both rather extensive, and there are many smaller ones. They seem to have been developed before the extensive dissection of the anticline dome by sub-aerial erosion had taken place. s'^^Todd, J. E.: Bull. 2, S. D. Geol. Survey, pp. 80, 81, 1S98 =^Todd, J. E.: Bull. 1, S. D. Geol. Survey, pp. 48-50, 1894; Bull. 2, p. 72, THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 45 Although the Black Hills lack snow capped peaks and some of the magnificent grandeur of more lofty and rugged mountains, they possess a great deal of scenic beauty. In contrast with the dry plains which extend for at least a hundred miles in each direction, they are very attractive. The Harney range is the part which is most picturesque from a distance. •'From the east it suggests a vast mass cf thunder clouds rising along the western horizon. Seen from the height south of Custer, the crest of the range has much the appearance of a saw lying with teeth upwards; and a view from the northeast presents a wonderful landscape of lofty mountain peaks, tremendous precipices, and a vast and almost inaccessible wilderness. "^'^ From the peak itself "we see a wilder- ness of wooded peaks encircled by a broad valley, the Red Valley, which the Indians call the Race course, this in turn enclosed by a wall of foot- hills. All is curiously symmetrical — a castle of geologic dimensions, with domes and turrets and a broad moat within its ramparts "-•' Fifty miles to the southeast, the milk-white cliffs of the badlands can be seen. Nearly as far to the north-northeast whitish Bear Butte stands conspicuous just beyond the dark pine forest. Eighty milo'S to the north, several lesser buttes including Dears Ears and Castle Rock, may be seen through the haze. To the northwest the mountainous landscape is continued by the Bearlodge Mountains. The light colored area there'n is the granitic culmination, Warrens Peaks. To the west, more than a hundred miles distant, the Bighorn mountains may be sesn occasionally, it is said ssAndreas. A. T.: Historical Atlas of Dakota, p. 107, (Chicago, 1S84) =»Ogden. A.: .V Ride Through the Black Hills, Atlantic Monthlv, April 1892, p. 455. 46 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA .i"^- ^m *- •■■■'*:? , :*- lA-% ^2K ^1^': ■ ■V. : . "- '■, - 1 It;'--: _r: '" ;^^.^;i . ^ •** :-:*:i«'-=-'^ ^^H ?^ "-. "■^^ S^S k ^ l^s#?i/ "^ m ■^5 '^0 ^" ^ M 1 k • • ____ ^^% w -i^^ Fig. 14. One of the thou.sand.s of superb views of the Black Hills THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 47 Fig-. 15. The famous Granite "Needles" n the Southern Black Hills. near Harney Peak and Svlvan Lake 48 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA .-^%k .^' ■=^''^ M^'' Fig:. 16 Beai' Butte near the northeastern corner of the Black Hills- a .--■trikins landmark. jjich-jv niii& Fig. 17. In the foothills of the Bl ack Hills near Sturg-is THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 49 Fig-. 18. Slyvan Lake. A view in the Granite Area near Harney Peak, Custer County. Sig.— 4. CHAPTER FIVE THE CLIMATE General Characteristics, p. 50; Factors determining, p. 50; Winds, p. 50; Temperature, p. 53; Length of Day, p. 58; Humidity, p. 59; Evap- oration, p. 60; Cloudiness, p. 60; Precipitation, p. 60; Variability of weather, p. 66; Supposed changes in climate, p. 67. I. General Cliaractei'istics The climate is invigorating. Clear skies and stimulating breezes prevail. Though great ranges of temperature occur, the dryness of the atmosphere helps to keep the sensible temperatures more nearly uniform. The summer season is usually long and warm enough for raising corn. The normal annual precipitation is sufficient for the crops grown. i The seasonal distribution of precipitation is very favorable, since slightly more than three quarters normally fall during the six months, April-October 1. The autumns and winters have relatively little precipitation, to which fact is due the naturally-cured hay furnished by the native grasses, as heavy autumn rains, when they occur, leach out much of the nutrition. The "openness" of the winters encourages grazing and permits a greater amount of social intercourse among the rural population than could be the case were there deep snows. The chief climatic handicaps are: (1) irregularity in the amount and distribution of precipitation; and (2) unseasonable low temperatures in the growing season. Periods of drought are common, but the south- eastern quarter of the state never has had a general failure of both the corn and small grain crops. In the western part of the state especially, the normal amount of rain in some years may fall in such short, heavy showers that most of it runs off and thus is of little benefit to the crops. Late killing frosts in the spring are not Infrequent and are a menace to fruit growing and occasionally injurious to corn. Early autumn frosts occasionally damage corn and flax crops especially in the northern sections. 2. Factors Determining the Climate The climate of South Dakota is determined by (1) the latitude, (2) the position of the state in the continental interior, and (3) the winds. The position of South Dakota gives it a continental type of climate with hot summers and cold winters, and means remoteness from sources of moisture. Because of the latitude (43°-46°) the days are long during the growing season. The state is located within the belt of prevailing westerly winds and is affected by many of the cyclonic storms which cross the continent in that belt. The winds are the chief agents in the distribution of moisture. They also greatly influence temperatures and relative humidity. 3, Winds Northwest winds prevail during the colder six months and southeast winds during the warmer six months. Winds from other directions are of relatively short duration. 2 The prominence of northwest and southeast ^If 8 inches of water are available for the use of growing wheat, its moisture requirements are filled. In no section of the state is the amount of rainfall normally received during the growing- season as low as 11 inches (SI per cent of 14 inches). Since the runoff in large sections is con- siderable and the rate of evaporation is very rapid, agricultural practices Which conserve the moisture (dry farming) generally are necessary in the drier i)ortions of the state. =There is an exception at Rapid City, due to its location just east of a gap through a lofty ridge which ideflects the wind from northwest to west, resulting in a prevailing- west wind. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 51 winds is due to the influence of cyclonic storms whose centers pass east- ward over or near South Dakota. Most of the winds are of moderate velocity — the average being about ten miles an hour. There are very few calm days, about 10 in the year, though calm nights are frequent. In the vallevs nnd lowlands the wind often increases in force as the day advances and dies down at nightfall, but this is not often the case on buttes. The persistent and moderate velocities of the wind favor the use of windmills, which have become very numerous except where artesian flows may be obtained readily. The rate of evaporation is higher than it would be if winds were less persistent. Thus they strongly influence sensible temperatures and in- crease transpiration from vegetation, making the water requirements of crops somewhat greater than in sections having less wind. (a) Wind Velocities. The average wind velocity, (in miles per hour) for the most windy and the least windy months at four South Dakota and one northern Nebraska station is shown by table l.^ Table 1. Average Wind Velocity in Miles per Hour Section of State April July Year East 13.8 10.4 11.6 Central 12.1 9.2 9.3 West 9.3 7.5 8.1 Huron, S. D Pierre, 3. D Rapid City, S. D Yankton, S. D S. E. 10.8 6.4 8.4 Valentine, Neb N. Cent. 13.0 10.0 11.0 The differences between the several stations appear to be due to differences in local conditions. Huron and Valentine are located on nearly level plains. The other stations are protected somewhat, Pierre from east winds by the bluffs along the Missouri Valley in which this city is located, and Rapid City from northwest and southwest winds by foothills of the Black Hills (Fig. 42.) (b) Gales. For the decade 1891-1900 Pierre had an annual average of 18.8 days with gales:* Huron an average of 35.7 days, and Sioux City, Iowa, 2 7.3 days. The months with the most numerous gales and the average number in each for that decade is shown by table 2.5 Table 2. — Monthly Distribution of Gales during the ten years 1891-1900. Station NW N NE E SE S SW W Total Pierre, S D 80 21 15 16 17 13 3 23 188 Huron, S D 97 10 10 3 143 52 15 27 357 Sioux City, la 138 22 1 5 21 70 10 6 273 Table 3 — Total number of days with gales — winds of 40 miles per hour and over from the direction as indicated during the ten years 1891- 1900. Station Jan. Feb. Mch. Apr. May Ju. July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Ann. Pierre, S. D. 13 11 17 18 22 28 19 17 13 14 10 6 188 Huron, S. D. 22 17 33 49 43 42 25 18 39 27 27 15 357 Sioux City, la 20 29 29 42 32 26 12 11 20 19 16 17 273 ^Summaries of Climatological Data of U. S. Bull. W., U. S. Weather Bureau, Sects. 33. 34, .35. ^Gales as defined in the report from which these data arc taken ar© winds ot more than 40 miles per hour. i^Tables 2 and 3 are from Henrv, A. .1., The Climatology of the United States. Bull. Q., U. S. Weather Bureau, p. 74, 1006. 52 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA When gales are associated with low temperatures and snow the result is a blizzard. When they are associated with high temperatures and low humidity they become blasting "hot winds." The fact that the prevailing direction of the stronger winds has influenced the shape of blowouts has been noted in the physiographic section. (c) ToniHdoe-.s, often called cyclones, sometimes occur in South Dakota, especially in the southeastern quarter. They are very irregular in their distribution. Several years may pass without any, and then there may be several in one year. They are the most destructive type of storm known, but happily the area affected is very restricted. Even in ' the states most affected by tornadoes, the probability that a given square mile will be crossed has been calculated at much less than 1-16 of one per cent per century. s (d) Blizzards. The blizzard is a much less frequent visitor than is generally supposed by non-residents, and as a result of the conditions attending the settlement of the rural districts, the construction of more commodious and more substantial farm buildings, fencing, and the more complete preparation for winter, such storms should be much less injurious than formerly." The blizzards that gave Dakota a reputation for severe winters were those of the days of the early settlement of the territory when the home- steaders in their temporary quarters were ill prepared for stornns. The last blizzard which caused much destruction was in 1888. After several mild days it commenced to snow and blow very hard on January 12-13 (it took a day for the storm to travel from Pierre to Yankton.) Two or three feet of snow fell in an hour or two, after which the temperature fell to -3 0° and the wind increased its velocity to 4 0 miles per hour. The snow drifted phenomenally as the high wind continued until many buildings were nearly filled with snow through even very small openings. Railroad and wagon travel was interrupted at many points. For several weeks many domesticated, as well as wild, animals suffered for lack of food, and some thousands of the weaker animals died. It is reported that 112 human lives were lost in what is now South Dakota as a result of this storm. ^ By means of the telegraph and telephone, warning can now be sent out widely, i=io that some special preparation may be made since severe storms approach slowly. (e) Hot Winds. It is not unlikely that the extension of the tilled area has reduced the injury inflicted on any given locality by hot winds, because cultivated fields, now very extensive, absorb the rainfall much more completely than did the native turf. While formerly much of the rainfall ran off into sloughs or stream' channels, now a larger per cent is retained in the sub-soil of the extensive tilled areas and forms a reservoir from which the crops draw. Nevertheless winds which are very drying still occur, and if their occurrence coincides with a period of deficient soil-moisture, vegetation suffers severely, especially sorts which are unable to absorb water approximately as rapidly as it is transpired. Some crop is ruined in some parts of the state nearly every year by a hot wind at a critical time. In 1911 a hot wind which persisted for several hours blasted, in several counties centering about Hyde County, wheat which was "in the milk." No attempt was made to harvest such fields. Certain animals, notably some amphibians, and insects which are in the larval stage or have recently pupated, are killed in some cases by excessively rapid evaporation. "Henry, A. .T. : Tlie Climatolosv of the U. S., Bull. Q., U S Weather Bureau, p. 77. 1906. 'Glenn, S. W.: Summary for Sect. 34. U. S. Weather Bureau, p. 2, 1909. sRobinson, Doane: Outline of South Dakota's History, S. D. Dept of Hist, Coll. Vol. II, p. 99, 1904. ' ^ • THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 53 4. Temperature (a) Mean Annual. Fig. 19 is a map showing the average annual isotherms for the state. The mean annual temperature of the state is about 45°, 9 for the eastern half about 44.5°, and for the western half about 45.6°. The northern counties have an annual mean about 5° lower than the southern counties. For reasons to be discussed, the north- eastern quarter of the state is the coldest and the southeastern the warmest (while the southwestern has the least cold in winter.) Green- wood in Charles Mix county, however, for many years reported the highest monthly and annual mean. The coldest station is Roslyn in Day County. Winds which are warmed by descent from the Rocky Mountains, but which soon lose their excess heat, make the western half of the state Fig. 19. Map showing- the more important Weather Bureau Stations; the prevailing wind direction; and the average annual temperature. warmer than the eastern. Local topographic conditions at Greenwood in the Missouri Valley and at Spearfish in the Black Hills favor temperatures nigher than normal at nearby stations. The Black Hills are a com- plicating factor in respect to temperatures. (b) Mean Monthly Temperatures. The mean monthly temperatures for Huron, Pierre, and Rapid City are as follows: lo Huron (1882-1905) Pierre (1892-1905) Rapid City (1888-190.-J) Table 4 — Mean Monthly Temperatures Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 9.5 12.9 26.7 44.6 57.3 66.6 71.5 69.1 59.6 44.7 27.4 15.7 13.9 16.9 29.5 46.5 59.3 68.9 75.2 73.1 62.8 49.1 31.6 20.1 21.5 23.5 31.6 43.5 54.2 13.8 70.2 68.8 59.1 46.6 33.6 26.0 "All temperatures are in degrees Fahrenheit. '"Bigelow, F. H.: The Daily Normal Temperature and Dally Normal 54 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA For the state as a whole, the average temperature for July, the warmest month, is about 72°; for January, the coldest, about 13°. August is nearly as warm as July, and February nearly as cold as January; in fact many of the lowest temperatures have been recorded in February. (c) Meaji Daily Temperatures. The following tables give the daily normal temperatures at Huron and Rapid City:ii Table Xo. 5. — Daily Normal Temperatiu'e — Huron S. D. 1882-1905 Day Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1 11 10 18 37 52 63 70 72 65 53 35 21 2 11 10 IS 37 52 63 70 72 65 52 34 20 3 10 10 19 38 53 63 70 71 6i 52 34 20 4 lu 10 19 39 53 64 70 71 64 51 33 20 5 10 10 20 39 53 64 71 71 64 51 33 19 6 10 11 21 40 54 64 71 71 64 50 32 19 7 10 11 21 40 54 64 71 71 63 50 32 19 S 10 11 22 41 54 65 71 71 63 49 31 18 9 10 11 23 41 55 65 7 1 71 62 49 30 18 10 10 11 23 42 55 65 71 71 62 48 30 18 11 it 12 24 42 56 66 71 70 62 48 30 18 12 y 12 24 43 56 66 71 70 61 47 29 17 13 9 12 25 43 56 66 71 70 • 61 47 28 17 14 9 12 26 44 57 66 72 70 60 46 28 17 15 9 13 26 45 57 67 72 70 60 46 27 16 16 9 13 27 46 57 67 72 70 60 45 27 16 17 9 13 27 46 58 67 72 69 59 44 26 16 18 9 14 28 46 58 67 72 69 59 44 26 15 19 9 14 28 47 58 68 72 69 58 43 25 15 20 9 14 29 47 59 68 72 68 58 43 25 14 21 9 15 30 48 59 6S 72 68 58 42 25 14 22 11 15 30 48 60 68 72 68 57 41 24 13 23 . i) 15 31 49 60 68 72 68 56 41 24 13 24 9 16 32 49 60 69 72 68 56 40 23 12 25 9 17 33 49 60 69 72 67 56 40 23 12 26 !l 17 34 50 61 69 72 67 55 39 22 12 27 10 17 34 50 61 69 72 67 55 38 22 12 28 10 17 35 51 61 71 72 66 54 38 22 11 29 10 36 51 62 70 72 66 54 37 21 11 30 10 36 52 62 70 72 66 53 36 21 11 31 10 72 65 36 Mean 9.5 1 2.9 26.7 44.6 57.3 66.6 71.5 69.1 59.6 44.7 27.4 15.7 Ann. Mean equals 42 1. PrecipUation of the U. S., Bull. R. U. S. Weather Bureau, pp. 41, 72, 1908. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 55 Table 6. — Daily Normal Teini>erature — Rapid City 1888-1905 Day Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1 23 22 26 38 49 59 68 71 64 53 39 29 2 23 22 27 38 50 60 68 71 64 53 39 29 3 22 22 27 39 50 60 69 71 64 52 38 28 4 22 22 27 39 50 60 69 71 63 52 38 28 5 22 22 28 39 51 61 69 71 63 52 37 28 6 22 22 28 40 51 61 69 71 63 51 37 28 7 22 22 28 40 51 61 69 71 62 51 37 28 8 22 22 29 41 52 62 70 71 62 50 36 27 9 22 22 29 41 52 62 70 71 62 50 36 27 10 22 22 29 41 52 62 70 70 61 49 35 27 11 22 23 30 42 53 62 70 70 61 49 35 27 12 21 23 30 42 53 63 70 70 60 49 3 5 27 13 21 23 30 43 53 63 70 70 60 48 34 27 14 21 23 31 48 54 63 70 70 60 48 34 27 15 21 23 31 43 54 64 70 70 59 47 34 27 16 21 24 32 44 54 64 71 69 59 47 33 26 17 21 24 32 44 55 64 71 69 59 46 33 26 18 21 24 32 45 55 65 71 69 58 46 32 26 19 21 24 33 45 55 65 71 68 58 46 32 26 20 21 24 33 45 56 65 71 68 57 45 32 25 21 21 24 38 46 56 66 71 68 57 44 31 25 22 21 25 34 46 56 66 71 68 57 44 31 25 23 21 • 25 34 46 56 66 71 67 56 44 31 24 24 21 25 35 47 57 66 71 67 56 43 30 24 25 21 25 35 47 57 67 71 67 56 42 30 24 26 21 26 35 48 57 67 71 66 55 42 30 24% 27 21 26 36 48 58 67 71 66 55 42 30 24 28 22 26 36 48 58 67 71 66 54 41 30 23 29 22 36 48 58 68 71 65 54 40 29 23 30 22 87 49 59 68 71 65 54 40 29 23 31 22 37 59 71 65 40 23 ean 21.5 23.5 31.6 43.5 54.2 63.8 70.2 68.8 59.1 41.6 33.6 26.0 Ann. Mean equals 45.2. From the above tables it may be observed that at Huron there are 67 days (June 19-August 24 inclusive) with a normal temperature of 68" or above and at Rapid City 5 5 such days (June 2 9-August 2 2.) At Huron there are 165 days (5^/^ months) with the daily normal temper- atures 50' or above and at Rapid City 161 days (May 2-October 9 in- clusive.) Both stations have about sixteen weeks during which the daily normal temperature is below 3 2°. Rapid City has no day with a normal temperature below 20°, while Huron has 90 such days, and 33 days with normal temi)erature of 10° or lower. The temperatures at Rapid City are influenced by its situation at the eastern edge of the Black Hills where Chinook winds often are strongly developed. (d) Maxima and Minima Temperatui*es. Mean and extreme maxima and minima temperatures are of great significance to life — they, rather than avci-ago temperatures influence physiological activities and apparently limit the range of species. Maxima temperatures of over 100° have been recorded for most of the stations, outside the Black Hills, and minima temperatures below -40° have been recorded from most of the long established stations except those in the Black Hills region. The extremes for the state are 115° and -50° — a range of 165°. Several stations have recorded an annual range of more than 150°. 56 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Table 7. — Mean and Extreme Maxima Temperatures for Certain >ronthsi2 May June July Aug. Sept. Aberdeen, Mean Max 90 99 99 98 94 Absolute Max 96 104 107 111 102 Huron, Mean Max 89 96 98 98 94 Absolute Max 96 99 108 108 106 Yankton, Mean Max 92 97 99 97 96 Absolute Max 95 102 107 105 104 Pierre, Mean Max 91 102 101 102 97 Absolute Max 98 103 108 110 104 Rapid Citv. Mean Max S.'S 96 97 97 92 Absolute Max. 92 103 102 106 102 Table 8. — Mean and Extreme Minima Temperatures for Certain Monthsi2 Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. 1 —16 —31 — 21 — 1 — 25 — 28 — 34 — 46 — 31 0 4 — 14 — 29 — 18 3 —28 — 34 — 43 — 37 — 25 7 9 — 4 — 20 — 14 6 — 18 — 34 — 32 — 33 * — 18 — 3 9 — 7 — 21 — 11 3 —16 — 19 — 30 • — 40 — 15 5 0 — 9 — 19 — 11 3 — 9 — 24 — 30 — 34 — 17 — 2 Aberdeen, Mean Min. Absolute Min Huron, Mean Min. . . Absolute Min Yankton, Mean Min. Absolute Min Pierre, Mean Min. . . Absolute Min :rtapid City, Mean Min. Absolute Min The high maxima in South Dakota stimulate growth in some plants, notably corn, as long as sufficient moisture is available. If that fails, many plants promptly wither. Winds accompanying high temperatures frequently are 'hot winds," although such winds are not necessarily con- fined to days having high maxima. Where daily maxima of 100° to 110° occur in summer, as in most of the state, they may be expected not in- frequently. These winds cause such rapid evaporation that plants which cannot absorb through their roots fast enough to equal the transpiration soon Avilt. Plants acclimated to more humid regions mav wither at such times, while there still is an abundance of soil moisture for plants dif- ferently constituted. The influence of the extremely low minima temperatures in South Dakota is less clearly injurious than in the case of the maxima. Freezing pulverizes the soil by rupturing the cohesion between many soil particles. In extremely cold weather, however, cracks more than three feet deep may be opened and aeration and deeper freezing permitted. Various plants are barred from the state because of the winter temperatures. The elimination is accomplished in two ways: (1) Drying winds continue to evaporate moisture from aerial parts when, because of the low ground temperatures, it cannot be replaced by the movement of sap. This factor is believed to be largely responsible for the absence of forests from many sections where the relative humidity in winter is low. (2) Freezing and thawing uproots some perennials. Red clover is not a success in most of South Dakota largely because it winter-kills in this manner. (c) The Daily Ranges in Temperatiu-e. The greatest daily ranges occur in the winter season when cyclonic storms are most strongly marked. Daily ranges of more than 50° normally occur in all months at "The mean maxima and the mean minima were computed from the month- ly minima for 1909-13: (Annual Summary for South Dakota, U. S. Weather Bureau, 1910-14, pp. 7, 8). The extreme maxima and the extreme minima are the highest and lowest temperatures recorded at the several stations dur- ing the period between the date of their establishment and 1909, (Bull. W., U. S. \\ eather Bureau, Summaries for Sections 33 and 34, 1912). THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 57 several stations in the state. Ranges of more tha n6 6° occurred widely in January, 1913; but in January, 1914, the greatest local range was 56°. In March, 1913, several localities had daily ranges of more than 70°, while in 1912 the greatest local range in March was 55°. Daily ranges of less than 20° are rare. Table 9. — Local ranges — 1913i^ l-l >.o o f. ,^ .QrH 3 rt P t^ 2B 0) 03 '-• T3 M g 0) a o s^ 2 03 C 13 > S cs OJ O rt < 'O CO §S1^ 71° 50° 26° 57 45 25 78 60 23 54 40 24 56 42 22 51 40 24 56 45 26 56 48 27 55 48 28 58 48 28 55 48 25 55 40 24 Jan Feb March April May June July August Sept October November December Mean 58 46 2 6 — The mean daily range for the month does not clearly show the in- fluence of the passage of cyclonic storms; in fact the higher means occur in July-November, inclusive, when cyclonic storms are least prominent. These months are the warmer of the drier months of the year. Warmth and aridity both favor large ranges of temperature. The differences between these daily means (average 26°) and the maximum ranges (averaging 58° and 46°) shown in columns 3, 1 and 2, Table 9, are largely the result of the passage of such storms. (f) Diurnal Variability of Temperature. The maxima of consecutive days frequently differ by more than 25° and not rarely by 30°, and the minima by slightly larger figures. Such sharp changes from day to day result from the passage of cyclonic storms. The great daily range and the sharp marked d'urnal variability are of much geographic importance. Rapid changes of temperature are active factors in the disruption of rock. They also are withstood with difficulty especially by new-comers such as new-born animals. The normal range of more than 2 5° between night minima and day maxima generally means that the nights are cool enough for restful slee])ing. Unseasonable killing frosts are associated with the great daily range of temperature. (R) The Length of the Growing Season. The interval between the i^From Monthly reports for District 6, The Mis'-ouri Valley. U. S. Weather Bureau, 1913. The mean temperatures are approximate averages. 58 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA last killing frost in the spring and the first in the autumn — the crop- growmg-season — averages nearly 130 days. For the noithern half of the state it is nearer 120 days and for the south-eastern quarter it is 140 days. The northern border has the shortest season (115 days) and the i lower Missouri valley the longest (150 days.)i4 The frost-free period | around the base of the Black Hills, and on the slopes of some of the ' buttes where there is good air drainage is a week or two longer than the average for the state. Figures 20 and 21i.-. show the datp« nf i^c^f L-,-n- * . • and first killing frosts in autumn tI. f n , ^ ' '"^ *^"^*^ '^ «P"^S iliiliillifil ?f9(!4-1913 ) «°"theastern counties three times in the past ten years (5) The Lem^h of Day i^Dav P o- Tvvi^^t T • ■ ' • ^- Weather Burtau Chart .^i ioratlon on p. 87, (New York, 1912). "Climatology of the U. S.. Bull. Q., U. S. Weather Bureau, p 498. =«U. S. Weather Bureau: The Annual Summaries for South Dakota, 1908- 1913. 2i"The Summaries of Climatolog-ical Data by Sections," Sections 33 and 34, Bull. W., U. S. Weather Bureau, 1912. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 61 Fig-. 22. Map showing the average annual rainfall in inches. north. Because of the increased altitude, the central portions of the Black Hills receive more precipitation, especially snow, than do the surrounding plains. (b) The Sources of the Moisture. The Rocky Mountains force the precipitation of much of the moisture which the westerlies carry from the Pacific Ocean, so that little or none of it is dropped over South Dakota. Because winds from the north are warmed as they come into lower latitudes, they are drying winds. Moisture from the Atlantic Ocean is largely prevented from reaching South Dakota by the fact that the prevailing winds are westerly, while the occasional easterly winds do not come from the coast. Therefore the Gulf of Mexico is the great source of moisture for South Dakota, as for most of the Mississippi basin. 22 The moisture-bearing winds are drawn to Dakota by the low pressures which accompany the passage of a cyclonic storm across the northern border of the United States. It is doubtful if moisture often is carried directly -from the Gulf to South Dakota. The winds associated with cyclones move in a spiral direction and air which was moving northward when it left the Gulf would form an east or even northeast wind before it reached the latitude of Dakota. The rapidity of the passage of normal lows is an even stronger reason for this doubt. It is not until the lows have crossed the Rockies that they strongly attract air from the Gulf. In 2 4 hours after crossing the mountains, the center of the low usually will have crossed the Dakotas. Since the distance from the Gulf to central South Dakota is some 1300 miles, a velocity of 55 miles an hour would have to be maintained for 24 hours in order to have the moisture carried directly to South Dakota. 23 The moisture en route to South Dakota may be precipitated and re-evaporated once, a few, or perhaps a -Stockman, Wm. B.: "Periodic Variation of Rainfall in the .\ri(l Re- g-ion," Bull. N.. IT. S. Weather Bureau, i>. 7. 11)05. -■■"Thouprh southeast -^vintls occasionally continue for two or tlr-'^e days, because of the spiral nature of air movement In cyclones It is altogether likely that even tjuch persistent winds bear no moisture directly from the •Gulf. 62 THE GEOGRAPHY OP SOUTH DAKOTA score of times before South Dakota is reached. It is obvious that each precipitation greatly increases the likelihood that some share will not reach Dakota, but will return to the Gulf in a river, be appropriated by a plant or animal, enter the underground circulation or when evaporated, be carried away from South Dakota by contrary winds. This is proved by the gradual decrease in rainfall with increasing distance from the Gulf. Table 10a. Daily Normal Precipitation — Huron Day Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug-. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1 .02 .01 .03 .06 .11 .10 .14 .10 .05 .03 .04 .02 2 .02 .01 .03 .06 .11 .10 .13 .11 .06 .03 .04 .02 3 .02 .02 .03 .06 .10 .11 .12 .12 .07 .03 .04 .02 4 .02 '.02 .02 .06 .10 .11 .12 .12 .07 .02 .04 .02 5 .02 .02 .02 .06 .10 .11 .11 .13 .06 .02 .04 .02 6 .02 .02 .02 .07 .10 .11 .11 .12 .07 .02 .04 .02 7 .02 .02 .02 .08 .09 .11 .10 .11 .08 .02 .05 .02 8 .02 .02 .02 .09 .09 .10 .09 .12 .09 .02 .05 .02 9 .02 .02 .02 .09 .08 .11 .09 .12 .09 .02 .05 .02 10 .02 .02 .02 .09 .08 .12 .09 .11 .09 .02 .06 .02 11 .02 .02 .02 .09 .08 .12 -.08 .11 .09 .02 .05 .02 12 .02 .02 .02 .09 .09 .13 .08 .10 .08 .01 .05 .02 13 .02 .02 .02 .09 .10 .14 .08 .09 .07 .01 .05 .02 14 .02 .01 .02 .10 .09 .14 .08 .10 .07 .01 .05 .02 15 .02 .01 .02 .10 .10 .14 .08 .09 .07 .01 .05 .02 16 .02 .01 .03 .10 .11 .14 .09 .10 .06 .01 .06 .02 17 .02 .01 .03 .10 .11 .15 .09 .09 .05 .01 .06 .02 18 .02 .01 .03 .09 .11 .15 .09 .09 .04 .01 .05 .02 19 .02 .01 .03 .08 .11 .15 .10 .08 .04 .01 .05 .02 20 .02 .01 .03 .09 .11 .14 .08 .08 .04 .01 .04 .02 21 .01 .01 .03 .09 .10 .13 .09 .07 .03 .02 .04 .02 22 .01 .01 .03 .09 .09 .13 .09 .07 .03 .02 .05 .02 23 .01 .01 .04 .09 .09 .13 .09 .06 .03 .02 .04 .02 14 .01 .01 .04 .09 .10 .13 .09 .05 .03 .02 .04 .02 25 .01 .02 .04 .10 .09 .13 .08 .04 .04 .02 .04 .02 26 .01 .02 .05 .10 .08 .13 .08 .04 .04 .02 .04 .02 27 .01 .02 .05 .10 .08 .13 .09 .05 .04 .03 .03 .02 28 .01 .03 .05 .11 .08 .13 .09 .05 .04 .03 .03 .02 29 .01 .06 .12 .08 .13 .09 .04 .04 .03 .03 .02 30 .01 .06 .12 .08 .13 .09 .04 .04 .03 .03 .02 31 .01 - .06 .09 .13 .10 .04 .03 ..02 .99 2.65 2.92 3.78 2.94 2.64 1.69 1.34 .58 .62 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 63 Table 11 Di lily X oi'iiial l*i-ecipitiition — -Rapid City, 1888-1906 Day Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May .Junc Juli Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1 .01 .02 .02 .05 .10 .13 .10 .09 .04 .03 .02 .02 2 .01 .02 .02 .05 .10 .13 .10 .09 .04 .03 .02 .02 3 .01 .02 .02 .05 .10 .13 .09 .09 .05 .03 .02 .02 4 .01 .02 .02 .05 .10 .14 .09 .09 .05 .03 .02 .02 5 .01 .02 .02 .05. .10 .14 .09 .09 .05 .03 .02 .02 6 .01 .02 .02 .05 .10 .13 .08 .09 .05 .03 .02 .02 7 .02 .02 .02 .06 .09 .13 .08 .09 .06 .04 .02 .02 8 .02 .02 .02 .06 .09 .12 .08 .09 .06 .04 .02 .02 9 .02 .02 .02 .07 .08 .11' .08 .09 .06 .05 .02 .02 10 .02 .02 .02 .07 .Oii .12 .08 .09 .06 .05 .02 .02 11 .02 .02 .02 .07 .08 .12 .08 .08 .06 .05 .02 .02 12 .02 .02 .02 .08 .08 .12 .08 .08 .06 .05 .01 .02 13 .02 .01 .03 .09 .08 .12 .08 .07 .05 .05 .01 .02 14 .01 .01 .03 .09 .08 .12 .08 .07 .05 .05 .01 .02 15 .01 .01 .U3 .09 .08 .12 .08 .07 .05 .05 .01 .02 16 .01 .01 .03 .09 .09 .13 .08 .07 .04 .05 .01 .01 17 .01 .01 .03 .09 .10 .13 .08 .07 .04 .05 .01 .02 18 .01 .01 .03 .09 .10 .13 .08 .07 .03 .05 .01 .01 19 .01 .01 .03 .09 .10 .13 .08 .07 .03 .04 .01 .01 20 .01 .01 .03 .09 .10 .12 .08 .07 .03 .03 .01 .01 21 .01 .01 .04 .09 .10 .11 .08 .06 .03 .03 .01 .01 22 .01 .01 .04 .09 .10 .11 .08 .06 .03 .03 .01 .01 23 .01 .02 .04 .08 .09 .11 .08 .05 .03 .03 .01 .01 24 .01 .02 .05 -OS .09 .11 .08 .04 .03 .03 .01 .01 25 .01 .02 .05 .08 .09 .11 .08 .03 .03 .01 .01 26 .02 .02 .05 .08 .09 .11 .08 .03 .02 .02 .01 27 .02 .02 .06 .08 .09 .10 .08 .03 .02 .02 .01 28 .02 .02 .06 .09 .10 .10 .08 .03 .02 .02 .01 29 .02 .06 .10 .10 .10 .08 .03 .02 .02 .01 30 .02 .06 .10 .11 .10 .08 .03 .02 .02 .01 31 .02 ill .06 .12 ... .08 !64 .01 Mean .44 ,46 1.05 2.30 2.91 3.59 2.55 2.11 1.26- 1.10 .46 ,46 ASHCROFT JFMAMJ JASONO JJ Ilk RAPID CITY ■■lllllll... OELRICHS Jl FAULKTON J FMAMJ JASOND ul PIERRE IL Jill ROSEBUD llllllll SIS5ET0N JFMAMJ J ASONO li lilU il WATERTOWN Ul ll Sioux falls 11 Fig. 23. Average Monthly precipitation at nine well distributed stations. 64 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA (c) Monthly Precipitation. The monthly distribution of precipitation is favorable to * agriculture. The months of heaviest rain are May, June and July. The least precipitation is received during January and February (Fig. 2 3.) The following table-i gives the mean monthly pre- cipation at Huron, Pierre and Rapid City, representing the eastern central and western sections of the state. ? S t? 15 ». 1 1 Wk ' 1 New York Penn syLvania Ohio ! Michigan Illinois 1 Wiscojvsin,- 1 1 Nebraska 1 Fig-. 24. The average rainfall of the eastern half of South Dakota in the five growing- months as compared with other states. Huron 1881-06 Pierre 1891-06 .-16 Rapid Citv 1888-06 .-14 Table 12. The Normal Monthly Precipitation Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May .June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year .51 .44 .99 2.G5 2.92 3.7S 2.94 2.64 1.69 1.34 .58 .62 21.1 .44 1.33 1.93 2.13 3.08 2.35 2.01 1.11 .81 .43 .50 16.6 .46 1.05 2.30 2. ill 3.59 2.55 2.11 1.26 1.10 J6 .46 18.7 Avfraffe ■ iSJJ ^'^"■l892 Z^'l^ir^^^^ ''"""''^ rainfall at Yankton. Spearfish and Pierre, \rom rmal sever^ "dro'uT^^\n"d"' grS^pIr" VvZ^es^'^llf "^rJatlv'^'heln^'d \l''' °'.t.^"^ Vl^nktXlST^)."""'^'- '^""^'^^ '■ " 5u'^lin"e"s^f^^llfsSry^^S^'DaL"ota,^!,"^f3! THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 65 (d) Number of Rainy Days. In eastern South Dakota there are about 71 rainy days-^ a year at each weather bureau station. At Pierre and Rapid City there are about 9 2 such days. The average of all the stations in western South Dakota, however, gives nearly the same figures as in eastern South Dakota,— 73 days a year. (e) Variability in the Amount of Precipitation. The annual rain- fall varies very greatly in South Dakota as illustrated by Fig. 25 which shows the fluctuation in total amount at Yankton and Pierre during two decades. 26 The average for the entire state in somei years has been less than two-thirds the normal amount, as in 1894 and 1910. At some stations it has been less than half the normal amount for that locality, as at Sisseton in 1888, Pierre, Kimball and Yankton in 1894, Ipswich in 1898, Huron in 1910, and Orman in 1911. At a few stations the rainfall has been in one year fifty per cent, larger than normal (Vermilion 1909), while amounts 30% in excess of normal are frequent and widespread. The variation from year to year as regards seasonal distribution is much greater than the fluctuation in the annual precipitation, and has much more geographic significance. The month of June, for example, at stations where the normal precipitation is more than 3..") inches, may receive less than ..5 inches in some years, as at Hermosa in 1910, High- more in 1911 (.09 in. in 1911, 3. .55 in. normal). Academy in 1912, (.32 in. 1912, 3.88 in. normal), Hopewell, Stanley Co. in 1913 (.22 in. in 1913 4.44 in. normal). Monthly deficiencies of but slightly less than 3 inches are widespread and frequent for the months of the growing season. The results are often disastrous. The almost complete failure of crops in Stanley county in 1912 is an example. Precipitation from 2-4 inches in excess if the normal for a given month also is common during the growing season. The variation in rainfall during the growing season influences the crop yields very greatly. Not infrequently twice the normal precipitation is received during one month when the next may receive less than half the normal. Consequently fair or good yields of such crops as are in the stage to benefit by the abundant rainfall of the wet month may be obtained, while crops which are in their critical stage of growth during the dry month may yield little. Thus in 189 5 the rye crop was very poor but the wheat crop was good. In 1910, though the potato and hay yields were low, wheat yielded faily well in many sections since rainfall at opportune times for wheat in many parts of the wheat growing area in the state. In 1911 though the yields of most crops were low, that of corn was normal. The variation in the precipitation during the growing season and its effects on agricultural prosperity is one of the strongest possible arguments for diversified farming. Table 13. Rainfall Per Month (Average of Huron, Yankton, Pien-e and Rapid aty)2r Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. 1909 .85 4.16 3.84 2.54 2.36 2.24 1910 .71 1.67 1.70 3.04 1.84 2.21 1911 1.90 1.66 1.38 2.08 2.77 1.99 1912 2.34 2.74 1.05 4.60 2.84 1.76 1913 2.11 4.10 2.16 3.20 2.10 1.86 ==.\ rainy day i.s, according to the definition of the U. S. AVeather Bureau, one having- .01 or more inches of precipitation. -■"The data from which Fig's. 2.'j were constructed were obtained from the "Summaries of Climatological Data of the U. S. by Sections." 33 and 34, and "Annual Summaries" for 1909, 1910. 1911. U. S. Weather Bureau Fig^ — is copied from Bull. W.. U. S. Weather Bureau. 27Data from Ann. Summaries for 1909-13, U. S. Weather Bureau, p. 9. SIg.— 5. 66 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA The average yields of the chief crops for the state as a whole fluctuate widely from year to year. While wheat yielded but 6.6 bu. per acre in 1894, it yielded 12 bu. in 1895, 8 bu. in 1897, 19 bu. in 1900, 12.8 bu. in 1910, 4 bu. in 1911, and 14.2 bu. in 1912. Similarly the yield of oats has ranged from 7.4 to 39 bu. per acre; rye from 4.5 to 20.2 bu. per acre; corn 4.2 to 3?,. 5, potatoes 23 to 105, and hay from .55 to 1.4 6 tons per acre. Fluctuations of far greater amounts have taken place within small areas. Nearly complete failures in one section may be counter-balanced in such averages by excellent yields in other localities. Table 14. Ciop Yields in Aarious Years in Bushels Pei- Acre Average for South Dakota^s Aver. 1894 1910 1911 1912 1880-1909 Whe^t 6.16^ 12.8 4.0 14.2 11.4 Oats 7.6 2.3 7.4 33.8 27.0 Corn 4.2 25.0 22.0 30.6 22.0 Potatoes' 23.0 44.0 72.0 105.0 79.0 Hay (tons) 0.94 0.8 0.55 1.46 1.3 (f) Snowfall. The average annual snowfall for the state is about 24 inches, but the variations from year to year and from place to place are very great. For example, 24 7.2 inches have been recorded in one winter (1910) at Greenmount, Lawrence County, in the Black Hills at an elevation of 6 430 feet and in 1880-81 more than 100 inches were recorded at many points in the eastern half of the state. In some other winters there has been only a slight snowfall in most sections. The snow usually does not remain long on the ground. Sleighing is infrequent. Grazing may be continued throughout all but the exceptional winters. When such winters have come (as in 1886-87, 1887-8, 1897-8,) there has been great loss of livestock. The loss in 1886-87 is said to have -been more than 50% of the cattle on the range in the Black Hills region. 20 Of recent years, however, stockmen have not relied entirely upon grazing and the losses have been far less. (g) Hail. There is an average of about 30 days per year with thunderstorms. -0 The summer rains generally are of the thunderstorm or conventional type, often giving heavy downpours in a few hours, but rarely more than two inches fall within 24 hours. Hail sometimes accompanies the thunderstorms in sufficient quantities to be destructive, but the losses due to it in South Dakota are far less than in some of the states to the south. 10. Variability of the Weather The weather in South Dakota is variable, as is the weather of most sections of northern United States. The variability is produced chiefly by the procession of those cyclonic storms — high pressure and low pressure areas — which cross the continent in the general latitude of South Dakota. The centers of many pass over or but a short distance to the north or south of the state. The lows usually are accompanied by cloudiness and precipitation; the highs by lower temperatures and clearer skies. A given cyclone or anti-cyclone usually passes in three days, the center crossing the state in one day. A rapid succession of changes in the weather therefore is typical for all parts of the state. The fluctuations in temperature from day to day frequently are more than 30°. The effects of such variation has been commented upon. !»The Year Book of the Department of Agriculture. 1S94-1912. ^Baldwin, G. P.: The Black Hills, p. 59, CChicago, 1904). "Bull. Q., U. S. Weather Bureau, plate 28. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 67 1 1 . Siii)posep. 611-620. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA thus the productivity of certain lands increased from nearly nil to exceed that of the present best grazing lands of the state. Although the original biota thus differs widely from the biota likely to prevail under conditions of high civilization and dense population, its study is distinctly valuable as a preliminary step in the determination of the geographic conditions of the area Bio-geography extends our knowledge of geographic conditions in various ways: Some of them are listed below: 1. Climatic data of nearly all sorts may be greatly supplemented. 2. The general geographic conditions are indicated by the ecological aspects. 3. Slight variations in these general conditions are marked by corresponding changes in vegetation and animals. 4. Many differences in the various climatic factors are revealed. 5. Differences in soils are indicated in many places. 6. The nature of the subsoil and the depth of the soil is revealed at many points. 7. The depth to the water table is shown in many places. 8. Many slight differences of slope or elevation are made con- spicuous. 9. The likelihood that an area will be flooded, or, in case of areas normally submerged, will be exposed, is shown in many places. 10. The value of certain areas for the production of certain crops is suggested. 11. The rate of erosion of slopes is suggested. 12. The directions or points of the compass are indicated roughly by various plants and animals. 13. The physiographic or even geologic history may be illuminated. These points demand some further discussion. 1. Climatic data of nearly all sorts are greatly supplemented: — In mid-latitudes, especially in continental- interiors, there may be great climatic variation from year to year and decade to decade. Records of a moderately satisfactory sort cover but a short period for most of the Weather Bureau stations in South Dakota. At but four stations do they cover twenty-five years, and at but thirty-four, most of which are in the eastern third of the state, more than fifteen years. Therefore the local climatic records permit only an imperfect knowledge of the climate of the state. By using the dominant species as an index, comparison may be made with corresponding areas, such as parts of Nebraska and Kansas which have records that cover a much greater inteTval. The dominant native plants and animals of any region have been selected not by the climate of a brief period, a decade or even a century, but by that of centuries The study of the native biota therefore makes possible in many places a very great extension of knowledge concerning the climate 2. The general geographic conditions are indicated in most places by the ecological aspects of the biota and therefore furnish indices for comparison of areas: — Plants closely similar in appearance (ecological aspect) have evolved in various plant families under the influence of similar conditions. Certain spurges in the drier parts of South Africa very closely resemble American cacti. Arborescent representatives of most families are found in the tropical rain forests; even the grasses and horsetails are represented there by forms which might be classed as arborescent. The plants of grasslands are chiefly herbaceous. Plants resembling the sage are found in all stepper, and the pincushion. p'Uow and carpet typee of growth are developed at high elevations or in high latitudes by members of nearly all plant families which are represented here. THE GEOGRAPHY OP SOUTH DAKOTA 71 If two environments, for exami)le southern Siberia and western South Dakota, present the same ecological aspects and types, and perhaps many representatives of identical genera and species, the chances are that a species from one environment will thrive in the other, if introduced. Various strains of Siberian alfalfa have been introduced into South Dakota, and some give great promise. The introduction of forms from regions quite unrelated ecologically is on the other hand less likelv to be successful. The resulting loss may be much greater than the direct loss because of the discouragement to the introduction of new varieties which one failure usually produces. (3 and 4.) Minor climatic differences are shown in many places by minor differences in the biota: — The effects of decreased evaporation or increased precipitation are shown by differences in the ecology of different areas occupied by a general ecological type, as between the southern and northern parts of a ^prairie, steppe or woodland. Plants such as the twinflower or bunch berry, which are restricted to the moister or more mesophytic sides of canyons at low elevations in the southern part of South Dakota are much more widespread in the northern part, and at higher elevations in the Black Hills. The persistence and velocity of the wind at various exposed points is shown by the stunted (krumholtz) character of the woody growth, and the direction from which the prevailing winds blow is shown in many cases by the lopsided shape of trees. As an illustration of the indication of minor temperature differences the following case showing a conspicuous influence of a season somewhat longer than the average and free from killing frosts may be cited. In Harding County, in the northwestern corner of the state, wild plum thickets are numerous and extensive on portions of the slopes of the forested buttes, while they are rare elsewhere in that part of the state. The local Weather Bureau stations, which are all in the valleys, record a frostless season usually too short for even wild plums. Their abundance on the sides of the buttes indicates clearly a longer frostless season at that elevation. An observing horticulturist has located in this belt an apple orchard which has yielded well for several years. Similar belts are indicated by the native vegetation in the Black Hills and elsewhere. 5. Differences in soils are indicated by the material brought up by burrowing animals and in many places by different types of vegetation: — Some species of plants grow on a great variety of soils; many others thrive best on certain t>pes, while still others are highly characteristic of a single type. Soil conditions therefore may be recognized commonly by the predominance of different species of plants, and often may be differentiated when seen even from a distance by the shades of color that dominant species give to such areas. A better illustration of this scarcely can be found than at the northeastern corner of the Black Hills where, from Bear Butte, more than a dozen types of soils, weathered from numerous rock formations which outcrop thereabouts, are distinguishable by the aid of their vegetal covering. On the heavy clay, chenopods and wheat grass give a dark green or brown color. The sandy soil is clothed with tall, stiff, usually straw-colored sand grass, or the reddish-yellow bunch grass. Sandy-loam areas have the greater light-colored cover of needle grass which waves conspicuously in the breeze. The clay-loam and silt have a velvet-like buffalo-grama grass carpet. Gravelly areas are blotched with the low shrubs of the lead plant where the matrix is loam; where it is silt, the color is lightened with some species of sage, a genus dominant on many areas of silty soil. In the foothills where sandstones outcrop, there are scattered pines; where shale outcrops in that locality, there are no trees. The contact between the limestone and 72 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA the redbeds is made conspicuous at a distance of many miles, because pines occupy tlie limestone to its very margin in most places. 6. The nature of the subsoil and the depth of the mantle rock are revealed at many points: — Materials brought up by burrowing animals are perhaps commonly sufficient indications of the nature of the subsoil. The thickness of the soil and of the mantle rock is shown clearly in the distribution or character of various species of plants and burrowing animals in areas whore firm rock is near the surface, as in many parts of the Black Hills and the quartzite and granite areas in the south- eastern and northeastern parts of the state. 7. The depth to the water-table is shown in places where this depth is not great. The establishment at such points, of the general water- Fis. 26. Part of one of the lakes of the East Coteau or Lake Region. A lake near \\ ebster having more trees than the average. — Courtesy of the C. M. & St. P. R. R. Co. level makes possible an approximation of the dopth to permanent water in wid« areas where the depth is too great to be reached by most local vegetation. The accessibility of underground water is strikinslv shown bv the distribution of certain kinds of trees. (Pig. 26, 27, 28), the groves of willow, ash, elm, and several ether kinds occupying portions of the river bottoms, the little thickets or single trees near hillside springs, all indi- cate clearly available ground water. Various sedges and rushes grow only in areas where seepage takes place, at least i)art of the time. Lignite, which is relatively impervious, causes seopa.ge in many places where it outcrops on slopes. Vegetation in such zones is fairly conspicuous, and has been used often in locating 'coal diggings." It appears that prairie-dog towns are located only where the water table is within reach of these able burrowers. The location of more THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 73 Fig-. 27. A view in the Red Valley which surrounds the Black Hills. Fig-. 28. An alfalfa field in the Bello Fourche Valley, near Newell, are along the river. The trees 74 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA than 100 towns examined in Harding, Perkins, Fall River, Stanley, and other counties seems to bear out this statement. - 8. Slight differences of slope or elevation are made conspicuous by differences in the vegetal covering in many places: — In swampy areas very slight differences in elevation commonly are accentuated by distinct differences in vegetation, and in many places the depth of water in lakes and marshes is suggested clearly in the distri- bution of reeds, sedges, water buttercups, pond lilies and other plants. On slight slopes the depressions and direction of slope are in many places conspicuously indicated by differences in the vegetation. 9. The likelihood that an area will be flooded is shown in many places: — • Certain species notably of grasses and terrestrial anjmals are unable to resist even occasional floods, and are lacking in areas where they occur, while certain plants, such as cottonwood and some willows, become established at the margin of flooded areas and, dead or alive, may long indicate the flood. The biota of areas normally submerged but occasionally exposed differs somewhat strikingly in many places from the inhabiting areas permanently submerged. Bodies of water which never freeze to the bottom are inhabited by a richer biota than are those that freeze occas- ionally. 10. The value of certain areas for crops is suggested in many places: — "Land which bears a pure short-grass cover was found to be sup- plied with water in the surface foot or two of soil only, and usually even to that depth for but a brief period during spring and early summer. Land with a uniform cover of tall grasses was found to be supplied with water to a much greater depth and to offer conditions favorable for plant growth during a much longer season. As a connecting link between these two conditions a short grass cover which supports a scattered growth of taller plants was found to indicate intermediate conditions as regards water supply. "The area of greatest agricultural value one year with another are those marked by the presence of the wire-grass vegetation. Of almost equal value are the areas characterized by those phases of the grama- buffalo-grass vegetation which are distinguished by the presence of a considerable quantity of Psoralea or of wire-grass. Bunch grass land is best for crops during especially dry years, but is relatively the least productive during favorable years. Typical short-grass land (grama- buffalo-grass association) produces more than any other type during wet years, but is first to fail in time of drought. s were in South Dakota, they made possible the establishment of perma- nent agricultural settlements before they would have been successful without this assistance. 8. Where fur-bearing mammals are numerous, skins, a natural commodity which usually has high value, is available for export. The "Fur Trade" was at its height in Dakota long before perma- next agricultural settlememt commenced, and therefore it influenced the settlement slightly. However, the trapping of fur-bearing animals has been carried on incidentally by many persons, and has contributed not =The one small town which might at first seem to contradict this gen- eralization IS located on the table near the north end of the West Short Pine Hills in Hardinpr County. Since permanent springs are numerous at the base of the Miocene foimation where it outcrops on the margins of this table, some 30-50 feet below the level of the town, it is probable that water may be obtained at a corresponding level beneath the dog town. The selecting of the site for this town might lend support to those who advocate that animals possess the i)ower of reason •'•Shantz, H. L.: Bulletin No. 201, Summary, 1911, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 75 11. The rate of erosion of slopes is suggested: — ■ In most places bare slopes indicate rather rapid erosion, and slopes covered with vegetation, notably trees, indicate much less rapid erosion. In the sandhills, dunes which have remained relatively stationary for a considerable interval have in some cases groves on their north-facing slopes. 12. The directions are roughly indicated by certain plants and animals: — The leaves of tho compass plant (silphium) usually have their edges in a north-south direction: several kinds of lichens and mosses are found chiefly on the north sides of trees and stones; the vegetation on a steep north-facing slope is somewhat markedly different in most places from that on a steep south-facing slope: several burrowing animals, (ants, badgers, prairie-dog), either in the distribution of the material brought up or in the driection of the burrow, give a rough approximation r.s to directions. Woodpeckers' holes generally are on the northeastern or ©astern side of a limb or tree. The entrance to covered nests of such birds as the meadowlark, ovenbird and marsh wren in most cases is on the east. 13. The physiographic and even some points in the geologic his- tory may be illuminated by the distribution of species, especially their presence or absence in areas now favorable to them. Bluffs along the valleys become covered with vegetation soon after the stream ceases to erode at their base The age of trees on such slopes, as also of those in ravines and on terraces and alluvial fans, suggest the age of these physiographic features. The presence in the Black Hills of numerous boreal species such as the white spruce (I'icea alba) and north- ern marmot (Maniiota dacota) suggests that during the geological past ( the glacial period ) such species were widespread in this latitude. With the change of climate some have been stranded in the Black Hills. In addition to increasing geograiihical _ knowledge in the various ways mentioned above, the biota affects runoff, erosion, soil, and evap- oration. The percentage of precipitation which runs off is affected by the biota. Burrows of worms, insects, amphibians and mammals, foot- prints of heavy animals, and roots, especially decayed ones, facilitate the entrance of water into the soil. Matted and coarse vegetation espe- cially retard run-off. Erosion is retarded by a vegetable covering. The disintegration of rock by temperature changes is also retaided by vegetation. The decay of rock materials by chemical means is facilitated by the secretions and remains of plants and animals. Animals in general accelerate erosion, especially on steep slopes. Soil is mixed and extended by burrowing animals, which also in- crease aeration and oxidation. All animals and plants contribute or- ganic matter to the soil. The roots of plants are potent factors in rupturing rock. By retarding the washing away of soil, however formed, plants are powerful agents in the accumulation of a deep soil. Water which otherwise would run off is conserved in soil clothed with vegetation, and given up gradually by evaporation, which process lowers the temperature and increases the relative and absolute humid- ity; therefore evai)oration of soil mo.sture normally is increased by the vegetal covering. IMo-Kcoftraphy and Hiiinan Geograiihy. Human activities in an area are determined largely by the geographic conditions which prevail there. The bio-geography reflects but slightly geographic location, area and min- eral resources, though climate, soil, topography, and water conditions influence and are influenced by biota. 76 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA The native biota is a geographic factor of great human sienificance. The following illustrations applicable to South Dakota indicate a few of its manifold influences. 1. A grassy area facilitates grazing and agriculture as woods have to be cleared, in most cases laboriously, before extensive tillage or pas- turage is possible. 2. Where the' i;oil is tough, laborious breaking necessarily precedes agriculture. 4. Plains which are periodically covered by dry grass permit of wide- spread i)rair!e fires and necessitate foresight, care, and cooperation on the part of the settlers. 5. Where but little of the area is wooded, as in South Dakota, the importation of wood is necessarv and wood is valued highly. The small area of woodland in Scuth Dakota was less of a handicap than it might otherwise have been because, (a) lumber served as "return freight" in cars which were used for the export of wheat, cattle and other bulky commodities. In portions of the state which do not ex- port large quantities of such produce, the cost of imported lumber is much greater: (b) barbed wire became fairly cheap before it was ex- tensively needed in South Dakota for fencing; (c) ash groves widely distributed along the valleys and cedar thickets in porfons of the western part of the state furnished a large share of the posts required. The character of the upland (nearly level and heavily sodded) made the hauling of posts and firewood less expensive than it ' might otherwise have been; (d) lumber mills were erected early in the Black Hills, the forested buttes in Harding County and along the lower Missouri River, and the local demand supplied, at least for a time. 6. The type of the grassy covering has influenced greatly the graz- ing industry. In many portions of the earth, graz.ng is less profitable than in South Dakota. This is due in no small degree to the "natural hay"which is formed here under the influence of the scanty rainfall of autumn and winter. The growth of many kinds of grass ceases before there are heavy frosts, and the nutriment largely remains in the dried standing grass until the rains of the following summer. 7. Where game birds and mammals are abundant, as they long a little to the firm establishment of many pioneers and some latei* settlers. 9. W^here animals of prey, such as wolves, coyotes, bears, pumas, horned owls, and other animals, are plentiful, as they formerly were or still are in iiarts of South Dakota, their numbers must be depleted before various sort-s of livestock and poultry can become very profitable. 10. Where herbivorous animals of certain kinds, such as bison, prairie-dogs, rabbits, locusts, are very numerous, their reduction is an essential antecedent to success in various human activities. The same may be said of poisonous animals and plants. 11. Various animals, especially birds and insects, have been val- uable allies of man in his struggle against undesirable animals and plants ("weeds"). Predatory insects, of which there are many sorts, including various spiders, hymenoptera, and ground beetles, are power- ful enemies of numerous plant-eating insects. Various insects of which the milkweed bug and monarch caterpillar are examples feed solely or chiefly upon certain weeds. 12. Wild fruits, berries, seeds, nuts, and roots contribute to the food supply of many persons, and in some instance-s were of great sig- nificance to pioneers^ and others. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 77 H THE BIO-GEOGKAPHIO DISTRICTS. Based on the biota, South Dakota may be divided into three dis- tricts (Fig. 29) which reflect differences of (a) climate, (b) toi)ography, (c) soil, and (d) routes of immigration into the area. The districts are (1) the Eastern Third of the state (largely Prairie). (2) the Great Plains, (3) the Black Hills. Representative or characteristic parts of these districts differ somewhat strikingly. However, sections of stream valleys in the Great Plains are transitional between that dis- trict and the first (the prairies)- while the forested buttes, escarpments and foothills are transitional between the dry grassy plains (the steppe) and the forested mountainous Black Hills. I The Pro. TS. The B/. th Hilh Fig^. 29. Biog-eographic Districts. la. — The Valleys of the Lower Mis.souri, Sioux and Minnesota Rivers. lb. — The East Coteau. Ic. — The Dakota Valley. Ila. — The Ui)i)er Missouri Valley. lib. — The West Coteau. He — The Dry i'lains. lid. — The Sand Hills. He. — The Badlands. Ilf. — Gumbo Areas (other small areas not shown.) Ilg. — Butte.s and Kscapments. Ilia. — Foot- hills. 111b.— Red Valley. lllc. — The Limestone Plaeau. Hid. — The Bark Area. ( 1 ) The Ea.stei'n Tliird of the state is largely prairie, but along most valleys there are meadows or somewhat dense groves of deciduous trees. This part of tho state is fairly well favored in respect to rainfall, having an average of about 2 6 inches or nearly 5 0 per cent more than the average for the rest of the state, the higher parts of the Black Hills excepted. More than three-quarters of the precipitation falls during the six warmer months (April 1-Oct. 1). The warmest as well as the cold- est parts of the state are within this district and the average annual and daily ranges ara as great as in any other part of the state or even greater. This is the least rugged large part of the state, as most of it has a topograi)hy characteristic of a recently glaciated plain. The soil is chiefly clay-loam. Many "eastern" plants, birds and other animals are found in this district, as it is contiguous with the prairies and savannahs of Iowa 78 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA and Minnesota and somewhat similar to tliem. Most genera and a major- ity of the species of this district are most abundant (have their cen- ter of dispersal), to the southeast, outside the state. As an illustration of the predominance of eastern species, it may be mentioned that more- than 95 per cent of the birds and flowers commonly seen are somewhat common east of the 9 0th meridian. Nearly as large a percentage of the trees are of indubitable southeastern affinities. This district may be divided into (a) the broad river valleys of the southern, southeastern, and northeastern margins, (b) the eastern coteau, and (c) the Dakota valley. The topography of these subdivis- ions has been discussed (]). 50). (a) Various siiecies of trees, including the soft maple (Acer sax;- chaHimni), Kentucky coffee tree ( Gymnocladus dioica), black walnut (Jujilans ni^ra), and the red mulberry (Morus ruba) are native to South Dakota only in the lower Missouri and Sioux valleys, and the sugar maple (Acer saccliainir^ ) is represented in the state only in the shaded ravines about Lakes Bigstone and Traverse near the headwaters of the Little Minnesota River. Numerous smaller plants characteristic of the eastern moist woods are limited to these valleys, and many typi- cally eastern kinds, notably several species of warblers and vireos, are seen, chiefly as migrants, only in this extreme eastern part of the state. The fox squirrel (Sciurus rufiventer) also is found only in this subdistrict. (b) The eastern Coteau originally had far fewer trees than sub- division (a), but at present there are numerous groves which were planted soon after the region was settled. A majority of the 600 square miles of wood-lots recorded by the census of 19 00 from South Dakota are within this section. The presence of manv marshes and lakes has made this an attractive region for various, largely eastern, species of aquatic plants and water birds, and with the growth of the artificial groves, various eastern birds of the woods have become com- mon in most parts of this region. (c) The Dakota Valloy originally had more woodland than the East Coteau, but fewer planted groves have become established, and although most of the sky-line is made by trees, not nearly all farms have wood- lots. Thriving groves are especially rare in the northern and western liarts of this wide valley, since the precipitation decreases in those direc- tions. ( 2 ) Tlie (ireat Plains bio-geographic district includes most of the state west of the Dakota Valley, except the Black Hills. This dis- trict is mostly a steppe, chiefly occupied by short grasses, low herbs and terrestrial animals. Trees are few, being nearly restricted to a fringe of cottonwoods and boxelder along the few fairly permanent streams. This district is notably more arid than the preceding, the rainfall being less regular as well as less abundant. The topography is mostly the result of fluvial and pluvial erosion, and is moderately rough in many parts. The soils are more varied, there being large areas of each of several types. Many eastern species of plants and animals, especially those living in the valleys, here reach the west- ,ern limit of their range, and a number of western species, especially among those of the uplands, reach here their eastern limit. Several conspicuous forms appear to have spread eastward or westwawrd, or both, from the Great Plains: however, a number of species have en- tered this district from the southwest. Several subdivisions of this district are readily recognizable. (a) The postglacial i)art of the Missouri flood-plain (above Charles Mix County ) and the lower sections of the flood-plains of its chief trib- utaries have many eastern species which are associated with the trees dependent on the relatively high water-table; (b) the Western Coteau, THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 79 transitional in regard to many species, between the typical dry plains and the Dakota Valley; (c) the central part occupying much of Stan- ley, Meado Perkins and other counties; (d) the sandhills of the south- •ern border are similar to those of Nebraska, and contain representatives •of many southern species not found elsewhere in the state. (They are treated separately in the chapter on physiography, and the section on the ecology of the steppe); (e) the badlands in the southwestern quar- ter, especially along the upper part of the White river, have many spe- ■cies which here are near or at the northeastern limit of their range; (f) the gumbo areas (Fig. 29) bordering on the Black Hills in the valleys of the Cheyenne and Bellefourche rivers have many plants soe- 'cies which are characteristic of such heav clay soils; (g) the forested "buttes and escarpments are intermediate or transitional areas between the grassy Great Plains and the forested Black Hills: Both coniferous and deciduous trees are important, and there are many species of plants and animals found in the Black Hills and the Rocky Mountains, as well as some distinctly eastern species. (3) The Hlack Hills District, a bio-geographic as well as physio- graphic unit, is a mountainous area largely forested with conifers. Be- cause of increased altitude, the precipitation is above the average for the state, while the average temperature and the rate of evaporation are lower, with the result that there is sufficient moisture for many species which require a good deal. Many Rocky Mountain species reach their easternmost position in the Black Hills. A large number of eastern species appear to have followed up the east-west valleys which cross the plains to this dis- trict. When the ice-cap covered eastern South Dakota, the climate of this region was doubtless less arid than now. At various times during or shortly before or after the glacial period the unglaciated plains doubtless were more favorable to various species than they now are. A few conspicuously boreal species are found here also. The latter, of which the white spruce (Picea Canadensis) is a striking example, probably reached this area when the ice sheet occupied eastern South Dakota, and the climate of the portions of the plains was sufficiently cool to be congenial. Those in the Black Hills now are separated from their nearest relatives (in central Manitoba) by several hundred miles of dry plains. As might be expected of a somewhat isolated area such as the Black Hills, a number of indigenous species are recognized .several mammals, (a red squirrel, Sciums hudsonicus dakoteiisis ) , marmot, mar- mota dacota, a wood rat, Netoma floridana baileyi and others), one bird (the white-winged junco, Junco aikeni), and several plants, belonging to various groups. There are several bio-geographic as well as geologic, physiographic and ecological sub-divisions of this district, (1) the foothills, (2) the red valley, (3) the limestone plateau, (4) the park area on the schist. The canyons and the higher peaks also have several peculiar species. HI. The Ecological Associations Variety of the native biota and bases for its classification. In the treatment of the biology of the diversified area such as South Dakota, it is desirable to sub-divide the region into sections having many fea- tures in common. In this state there are native about 60 kinds of mammals, 300 species of birds, 24 kinds of reptiles, — snakes, lizards and turtles, 7 species of amphibians, many more than a thousand spe- cies of insects and more than 2,000 species of seed plants. In addition there are fishes, mollusks, crawfish, worms and many smaller forms. Of this vast variety of life very many are inconspicuous and not ob- 80 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA served by non-specialists, although without doubt each species has its part to play in the biologic economy of the whole. This is made the more likely when it is noted that nearly every species occupies a definite place; for example, the species of the shaded ravines are not at all the same as those of the plains. It is therefore convenient to subdivide the state into areas occu- pied by different biological associations or communities of plants and animals. Communities or associations having many similarities may be grouped into what technically is known as a formation. The forma- tions of South Dakota are (1) grass-covered dry plains or steppe.s (2) prairie, (3) woodland, (4) meadows, and (5) aquatic. The former occupies the most extensive area and the latter the least extensive. The areas occupied by these several formations are characterized by distinctive features of ' topography, soil, water conditions, climate, veg- etation and animal life. Individual plants (with a few exceptions) are stationary, but the species moves by means of the seeds, runners or off-shoots. In the case of animals, most species and individuals are able to move about, consequently the animals are but partially confined to a given association. The coyote, for example, may be found in each community, but in some, as the stream, pond, or marsh, its presence obviously "indicates a visit. In the case of animals, the areas in which they rear their young are considered to reveal the associations to which they truly belong. 1. THE STEPPE FORMATION OR GROUP OF COMMUTNITIES.e A. As a AVhoIe. 1 . Distribution. About three-fourths of the state is covered by vegetation charac- terized by its patchy or scattered distribution and, in most associations, by its shortness. The steppe group of associations has its center in the Great Plains section, occupying most of bio-geographic District II (Fig. 29), and is represented in small • exposed areas on clay soil and in the western part of the eastern third of the state (District I.) The grassy tops of most of the flattish-topped buttes of the western third of the state, and many treeless portions at lower elevations in the Black Hills also are occupied by members of this formation. 2. GENERAL GEOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS OF THE STEPPE. The climatic conditions of the Great Plains are severe. The rain- fall is irregular in its distribution. It sometimes falls in hard show- "Heferences to literature on the steppe: The physical geog-raphy is treated in earlier chapters of this paper where additional citations are given. Little has been written on the biology of the South Dakota steppe. The author's papers on the biology of south-central South Dakota, S. D. Geol. Survey Bull. 5, pp. 61-130, 1912, and on the biology of Harding County, north- western South Dakota, S. D. Geol. Survey Bull. 6, pp. 11-103, 1914, are chief. The bircLs of Stanley County are treated in The Auk, April, 1909, pp 144-153; of Fall Uiver Co. m the Wilson Bulletin, March, 1912, pp. 1-6. and March, 1913, pp 3S-39; of Harding- County in The Auk for January, 1911, January, 1912. and July, 1913, summarized in Bull. 6; The plants of south-central S. D. in Muhlenbergia IX. 1913, pp. 45-52, of northwestern South Dakota, ibid, pp. 6.-84. Ihe only other articles are short lists of birds and plants of portions of the old Rosebud Reservation by Reagen, A. B., and Jones, Sheridan, S. D. Geol. Survey, Bull. 4, 1908. Pound & Clements: The Phyto-Geography of Nebraska, 1900. and Pool, Jx. J.: A Study of the Veg-etation of the Sand-hills of Nebraska. 1914, are valuable discussions of the plants of a neighboring state Shelford V E" Animal tommunities in Temperate America as illustrated bv the Chicago Region, 1913, although it contains no treatment of the animals' of the steppe, IS of great value. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 81 ers and occasionally is accompanied by hall. Slight showers may bring the only precipitation received during long periods. Droughts of shorter (a few weeks) or longer (two or three seasons) duration are not rare. Ordinarily, about three-quarters of the total precipitation (which averages about 15 inches per year) takes place in the six grow- ing months (April to Sept. inclusive). The rest of the year is conspicu- ously dry. The relative humidity of the atmosphere in the steppe is low and the rate of evaporation high. In much of the area, the possi- ble rate of evaporation is two to five times the average rainfall. The range of temperature is almost 150° Fahr. annually and fre- quently 50° daily. The seasons are irregular as to time of occurrence, and summer and winter exhibit wide extremes of temperature. Maxima of 100° F. and minima of — 40° are not rare. Freezes which terminate most of the vegitative activity occasionally occur as early as mid-Sep- tember and as late as May, and less severe frosts as early as the be- ginning of September and as late as early June. Winds are peristent. The velocity is seldom high, but an 8-12 mile breeze is almost constant during the daytime. In the summer, such winds may be exceedingly hot and, if the air is very dry, may wither the vegetation. In the winter the winds often are very cold. When driving dry snow, high winds are peculiarly severe. There is little protection from the heat of the sun for the plants or for non-burrowing animals, except those which can be sheltered by low shrubs, which are rarely dense, the larger herbs, and the very low cliffs ("cut banks") which are found here and there along the valleys. Dark cloudy days are infrequent. In light conditions, the steppe ap- proaches the desert. Most of the area is in the stage of erosion known as early maturity. Nearly all is underlain by only locally consolidated clays and sands. 3. THE MORE CONSPICUOUS PLANTS AXD ANIMALS." (a) Plants. The predominant plants are the grasses, » the grama grass, buffalo grass, wheat grass and triple-awned grass being chief. Plants of the Composite family occupy second place. In the sum- mer they are more conspicuous in many places than the grasses. Nearly a third of the common species belong to this family. The most notewor- thy are: 9 blazing-star, golden-rod, cone-flower, golden-aster, white aster, resin or gum-weed, nigger-head, worm-wood, sage, prairie-sage, sun- flower, yarrow, prairie-pink, fleabane, and two with no common names, Sideranthus, Actinella. The Legume family ranks third. It includes some of the more abundant plants of these plains, notablyio the prairie-clover, lead-plant, Dakotah vetch, buffalo-bean, loco, lupine, and wild alfalfas. "The author is under obliKations to the U. S. Biological Survey for de- termining the varieties of numerous mammals and a few birds, to P. A. Rydberg and .\ven Nelson for naming plants; to Alexander Ruthven for de- termining reptiles and amphibians; and to L. P. Morse, W. M. Mann and others for naming insects. sRouteloua oligostachya ; Buchloe dactyloides; Agropyron tenerum. A. dasy.^tachyum, A. Smithii. Siiorobolus brevifolius. "Liatri.s punctata; Solidago missouriensis, S. mollis, S. rigida, S. serotina; Ratibida columnaris; Chrysojisis mollis, C. hir.sutissima; Aster hebecladus, A. oblongifolious; Grindelia squarrosa; Brauneria angustifolia; Ambrosia trifida: Artemisia frigida, A. aromatica; Helianthus Maximilianus; Achillea mille- folium; Lygodcsmia juncea; Krigeron asper, E. pumilus, E. ramosus; Sideran- thus spinulosus; Actinella simplex. lopetalostemon purpureus, P. oligophyllus; Amorpha canescens, Lotus ameri- canus; Astragalus caespitosus, A. succulentus, A. canadensis, Aragallus Lam- bertii; Lupinus argenteus; Psoralea argophylla, P. cuspidata, P. digitata, P. tenuiflora. Sig.— 6. S2 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Abundant Monocotyledons, othei- than the grasses, are wild onion and prairie lilies. n Diocotyledons other than the composites and legumes are numerous. There are several crucifers (mustard family), includingi^ shepherd's purse, wall flower, and Lesquerella, Sophia, Arabis. Several sorts of evening primrosesis are conspicuous because of showy flowers. Chenopodsi* are plentiful in the more clayey or more sandy areas. Three genera of scrophs or beard's tonguesis help adorn the plains. The roses, wild flax, milkwort, false mallow, puccoon, plantain, Oreocarya, and Cogswellia are also represented abundantly. i« (b)' Birds. Among birds the only permanent resident represented by many individuals is the desert horned lark. it Longspurs of some spe- cies are found in all seasons, the chestnut-collared and McCown's long- spurs nesting here abundantly and the Lapland longspur wintering here. Two other members of the sparrow family, the lark bunting and the western vesper sparrow are very numerous. The former is quite char- acteristic, as is also the desert horned lark. Other prominent nesting birds are the Brewer blackbird, burrowing owl, Sennett's nighthawk, upland plover. Formerly the long-billed curlew and the prairie sharp- tailed grouse were common. Several birds nest in the groves of scat- tered trees along the streams (considered here under woodland), but often feed upon the steppe far from their nests. Examples are: the ferruginous, rough-legged Swanson's and sparrow hawks. The cliff and barn swallows, nesting on cliffs or about buildings, are also seen often. (c) Mammals. No conspicuous species appear to be confined in its range to the steppe of South Dakota, though several varieties are. Of these the plains coyote, plains pocket-gopher, certain mice and voles may be mentioned. is Other mammals abundantly represented on the steppe are thei" prairie-dog, badger, jackrabbit, large and little skunks, gray wolf, kit-fox or swift, long-tailed weasel, striped spermophile, and formerly the antelope and bison. '^Allium reticulatum and A. rubrum; Leucocrinum montanum and Fritil- laria atroijurjiurea. '^Capsella l>ursa-pastoris, Erysimum a.si)erum, E. inconspicuum. Lesquerella lunellii, L argentea; Sophia incisa, S pinnata; Arabis hirsuta. '■'Onogra albicaulis; A. Nuttallii; Onagra striogosa: Gaura coccinea : Meriolix serraluta. "Chencpodium album, C. Fremontii, C. incanum, C. Watsonii, C. pratino- cola, C. dacoticum; Atriplex argentea, A. canescens, A. i\uttallil, A. Such- leyana; Suaeda erecta. '^Castelleja Hava; Orthocarpus luteus; Pentstemon acuminatus, P. albidus, P. eriarithera, P. grandiflorus. i"Rosa arkansana, R. Fendleri, R. Woodsii; Linum Lewisii. L. rigidum; Polygala alba; Malvastrum coccineum; Lithospermum ang-ustifolium, L. line- anfolium; Onosmodium occidentale; Plantago elongata. i'. I'urshii; Oreo- carya glomei-ata. O. peienans; Cogswellia macrocarpa, C. montana. '■In the interest of brevity and simplicity, technical names are used here only in case the common name does not indicate the plant or animal under di^jpussion with a definiteness sufficient for the purpose at hand. Since the American Ornithologists Union adopted distinctive names for the Ameri- can birds at an early date and as these names now are familiar to all stu- dents of birds, the common names may be used here without misunderstand- ing- 1 he scientific names of various widely distributed and well known ani- mals, such as the pronghorn antelope, bison, gray wolf, striped gopher, com- mon toad and rattle snake are given only once or twice. As most common names of plants apply to more than one species, technical names usually are necessary for precision, and therefore are used more frequently. Reference to a plant by its incomplete name implies that the species is the one enum- erated in the list of conspicuous species where technical names will be lound or the one mentioned only a few lines above. Cams latrans; Thomomys clusius; Geomps (bursarius) lutescens; Pero- m>scus maniculatus ncbrascensis, P. leucopus aridulus; Peroa:natlius fasciatus. Cynomys ludovicianus; Taxidea t. taxus; Lepus c. campestris: L cali- rornicus melantois; Mephitis (Chincha) hudsonica: Spilogale interrupta; Canis ^,V.?i f-V * l'^*^^ velox; Mustek! longicauda; Citellus tridecemlineatus olivac- eous, C. t. tridecemlinea us; Antilocapra americana; Bison bison. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 83 (d) Other aiiimals. The most common snake is the plain bull snake, with the plains blue racer next and the prairie rattlesnake third in most places and seasons. The horned lizard is numerous in many localities. The common toad is seen frequently. The Great Plains toad is characteristic but not abundant. -« Invertebrates aside from the insects are unimportant in this group of associations. It appears that only three of the numerous phyla are represented, the protozoa relatively sparsely, mollusca chiefly by but one species of land snail (Succinea j»rosvonorii ) and the arthropoda by a few spiders-i and centipedes, and by numerous insects of six of the eight orders: Orthoptera (grasshoppers and locusts), Diptera (gnats, mosquitoes, flies), Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Coleoptera (beetles) and Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, ants Ichneumons) and Hemip- tera (bugs. The locusts and grasshoppers^-' are the most conspicuous, insects and most injurious. The Hymenoptera of several families (digger wasps, ants, woolly bees) are abundant. Blow flies, bot flies (GastrophiliLs equi) and robber flies are plentiful. Lepidoptera are few upon the stoppe. The beetles are mostly ground beetles. -^^ Bugs are very rare upon the steppe. 4. "ADAPTATIONS" OF THE LIFE OF THE STEPPE TO GEOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS. (a) Plants. The plants display a variety of characteristics seem- ingly related to the environments, including: 1. The predominance of perennial grasses and herbs, the latter belonging chiefly to the higher orders. 2. Compactness of stalk or flower or both. 3. Specialization of the root system. 4. Prevalence of narrow or small leaves or thick cutin (epider- mis). 5. Pollination and seed dispersal accomplished in a vast majority of the species by the wind. 6. Ability to mature quickly. 7. Time of growth not closely confined as to season. 8. Destruction of exposed parts usually does not result in the death of the plant. 9. Ability to withstand inactivity, forced by drought, for even two or three years. 10. Resistance to unseasonable warm spells and frosts 11. Marked seasonal succession depending on accumulated heat, water content of the soil, relative humidity and precipitation. 12. The predominance of yellow flowers. (1) Although in favorable years annuals are conspicuous, herba- ceous perennials are its characteristic vegetation. There are no large- shrubs, and no trees. This characteristic is in contrast to woodland, desert, prairie and most mashes. ="The technical names of these reptiles are: Pityophis catetiifer sayi, Bascanion constrictor flaviveiitii.s, Crotalus conlluentus and I'hrynosonia doug- lassi hermandesi; of the toads: Bufo americanus and B. cognatus. -'Mostly of the jumping (TMiidippus) and running- types. --The genera more abundantly reiiresented include Melanophus (M. brivittatus and others); Si)arogemoii (S. aequale and others); Dactylotum (D. pictum); Phlibostoma; Hippiscus; Di.ssosteria (D. Carolina); Hrachystola (B. hagna); Nachyrhackis; Xijihidium; Opeia; Accanthus. Hadtrotettiz (H. trifas- ciatus). ^Perhaps the following include the more abundantly represented genera. Argynnis; Apatelia; Basilarchia; Chrysophanus; Coelnonympha; Colias; Lyca- ena; Thanaos. =*Eleodes obsoleta, E. opaca, E. tricostata; Silpha ramosua; Harpalus eraticus and others. 84 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA The relatively firm turf which prevails in the more favorable por- tions of the steppe hinders the establishment of annuals, which there- fore are much more conspicuous in the more arid and more sandy por- tions. Frequent prairie fires occur where there is a fairly close turf, for reasons already mentioned. Fires are powerful factors in pre- vemting the spread of trees and shrubs. The large shrubs are restricted chiefly to the more arid or more rugged portions where vegetation is discontinuous in its distribution and where combustible material is sep- arated comparatively widely. During the six or eight months in which there is little vegetative activity because of lack of sufficient heat or moisture, evaporation from all exposed living surfaces is continued by the intensely drying winds which frequently prevail on the steppe. Plants not presenting living surfaces from which extensive evaporation takes place when the water lost cannot soon be replaced, have the advantage over other species. If planted on the steppe, most of the shrubs and trees not especially resistant to loss of moisture through the bark are killed during the months of inactivity rather than during the normal summer season. (2) Compactness of stalk is illustrated by almost all the plants. Few abundant upland species reach a height, in ordinary seasons, of much more than a foot, and exceedingly few reach three feet. The majority have most of their bulk within six inches of the soil. Genera, such as the rose, sunflower, sage and golden-rod, which have representatives in other ecological formations, are in most cases rep- resented on the steppe by the most dwarfed species of the genus. Two striking examples of small size are the plains rose, in many cases a simple bush less than five inches tall, which bears but one flower, and the plains sunflower which in most cases is less than seven inches tall, and in dry years, especially on clay, has many individuals which are less than four inches high. The conspicuous places held in the flora by the Compositae points to compactness, of flowering parts. Even the grasses (grama, buffalo, wheat and others) have the spikelets somewhat compactly arranged instead of loosely as in typically prairie and woodland species. Compactness of growth decreases exposure to the winds. In most formations, an insufficiency of sunlight results in a diffuse and ex- tended growth. There is no such insufficiency during the growing season in the steppe. Size in many cases is related to conditions during growth. Cultivated plants normally are larger than other individuals of the same species, which in turn are larger during moist seasons, than during dry seasons. (3) There are many plants which have developed a shallow, wide- spreading root-system. This appears to be a response to the many slight showers, the water of which does not soak in deeply. The buffalo and grama grasses have their roots mostly confined to within a foot from the surface. In contrast to these there are such deep-rooted plants as Psoralea, a rather coarse herb, which has almost all of its finer roots at a depth greater than four feet, and in some cases pen- etrates hard sub-soil more than six feet, and looser materials still farther. Certain genera including the sages (Artemisia) and Gutierrizia, have both well developed lateral roots and rather deep tap-roots. Most plants which are abundant on the more impervious soils have shallower root systems than- those in the looser soils. Shrubs and coarse herbs have root systems which go down to greater depths, than do those of lesser plants, probably because of their greater exposure to the winds. They need firmer anchorage and a more reliable water supply than is found near the surface. The plants showing shortage of water in enlargements of the roots are chiefly the blazing star, the Indian turnip. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA (Psoralea asculenta) and the bush-morning-glory (Ipomoea leptophylla). The cacti (Opuntia, Mamillaria) are the only plants which store con- siderable amounts of water above ground. (4) Most of the plants have either small or narrow leaves, and a few like the prairie-pink, Gutierrezia, and the cacti are almost leaf- less. Abundant species with resin include the cone-flower, gum-weed, and Pscralea.25 Many species have thick epidermis, which in many cases is covered by numerous dry scales. The sages (Artemisia, Eurotia lanata) Poraleas and Antennarias have a grayish coloration due to such scales. These characteristics of leaves and cover clearly retard evapora- tion, and thus appear to be responses to the moisture conditions of the steppe. 5. The seeds of nearly 90 per cent of the abundant species on the steppe are distributed by the wind. The tumble-weed habit, in which the aerial part of the plant becomes detached from the root and are rolled across the plains by the wind, is developed almost solely by plants of the wind-swept plains. Several species with this habit, belonging to several families, are represented abundantly in South Dakota. The chenopod family is the chief one, and is represented by the giant tumble weed. The Russian thistle, and the bug-weed. Two legumes, the Indian-turnip and the wild alfalfa, two species of the Amarathnceae, a composite and two grasses also have this habit. Persistent surface winds, few places of lodgement such as bodies of water, very rugged areas, thickets and other places unfavorable for steppe plants, and the scarcity of other agents of dispersal all have contributed to the predominance of species dispersed by the wind. (6) The ability to mature quickly is possessed by most plants in this formation. The period between killing frosts in spring and fall is short, averaging about 120 days and having a minimum length of more than a month less. The growing season is shortened usually still further by the drying weather in August and September. Few conspicuous plants require more than two months for the maturing of their seeds, and many need even less time. This is in contrast to the condition in most other formations. (7) The climate of the steppe is variable. In some years the vegetation is two weeks ahead of normal, and the next year it may be far behind. Delayed rains occasionally cause a surprisingly late flower- ing. We have found flowers of the rose and even of the pasque flower late in August, following July and August rains and a very dry spring and early summer. (8) The characteristic steppe plants have a wonderful resistance to prairie-fires and grazing, which may frequently destroy the aerial parts. Many typical plants such as trees and shrubs of other ecological associations are killed by the destruction of only a small part of the aerial growth. Certain steppe species are killed, however, by too fre- quent fires (oftener than once in three years for example) or by close pasturing. (9) After a series of wet years there are many new immigrants into the steppe. A dry year or two decimates or eliminates species which are only visitants to the steppe. The characteristic species seem to be almost uninjured by even prolonged drought. In the summer of 1911 for example, there were localities which for two years had =5Kspecially tlif case in P. dis'itata, ]'. linearifolia and P. tenuiflora. -'"Thu chenopods are Cycloma artiplicifolium, Salsola pestifer and Coris- permum hyssopifolium; the legumes, Psoralea esculenta and P. floribunda; the amaranths, Amaranthus albus and A. graeclzans; the composite, Town- sendia sericea; the grasses, Panicum capillare and Schedonnardus panlculatus. 86 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA been so dry that almost no grass had grown; yet when the unusual rains of August came, the ground was green within a few days. (10) The vegetation does not start quickly in the spring; but, if after it has started, a freeze comes, suprisingly few of the more characteristic plants are killed. The native steppe vegetation is seldom affected noticeable by early autumn frosts. In areas less likely to have unseasonable frosts, many species are severely injured when such frosts occur. (11) The succession of flowers in an ordinary year, is striking. There are at least five well marked periods, the prevernal, vernal, aestival, serotinal, and autumnal. During one period the plains are dominated by one group of flowers, and during the succeeding periods by still others. The early bloomers of the steppe include Cymopterus acaulis, pasque flower, violet (Alicia nuttallii) and prairie lilv. Among those blooming in June are the beard's tongues,-" onions, camas (Zygo- denus ill termed ius), loco, buffalo bean (Astragalus),-^ wild flax. -in In July niggerhead (Braunia), prairie clover, wild alfalfa ( Psoralea l,^" false mallow, stemless evening primrose (Gaura), and spurge are prominent. During August, the numerous species of asters, 'i golden-rod, 32 and the fleabane (Senicio canus) are in their glory. The sages^s are in full bloom early in September. Accompanying this progressive activity there is a shifting in floristic complexion of the region. Early in the season the plants are related mainly to eastern or mountain species, while as the season advances, conditions become more severe and the active or dominant species are successively related to plants of the prairies, drier plains, and flnally the desert. This succession corresponds with changes in the temperature of the air and soil, and in the moisture content of soil and atmosnhere. (12) Many of the more abundant species are yellow, although several conspicuous flowers are white, orange, or pale blue. There are few reds, deep blues, or violets. Very few are streaked or mottled. In the vast majority of cases the flowers are small in size as compared with those of other plant formations, and few are particularly fragrant. The color probably is related to the light conditions, and the fragrance to the windiness, which also doubtless affects the size of flowers. (b) Birds. The birds of the steppe possess two or more of the fol- lowing characteristics: 1. Nests are necessarily built on the ground. 2. Many kinds sing while on the wing. Examples are the lark bunting, longspur, Sprague's pipit, and frequently the western meadow- lark and horned lark. 3. The songs and calls are loud compared with those of birds of woodland or prairie. Because of climatic conditions of the steppe, representatives of species in many cases are farther apart than in most other areas. Calls and songs fulflll their chief purpose only when they are heard by other individuals of the species, and therefore need to be relatively loud in the steppe. ^rontstemon acuminatus. P. albidus, P. erianthera, P. grandiflorus. ^^Astrag-alus caryocarpus, A. flexuosu.s, A. lotiflorus, A. mlcrolobus, A. Missouriensis, and A. triphvUus, in addition to those given in note 6. ="Linum Lewisii, L. rigidum. •■"Mentioned in note 10. The next three plants are Malvastrum coccineum, Gaura coccinea. Euphorbia marginata, E. arkansana. ^Aster commutatu.s-, A. hebecladus, A. multiflorus. A. oblongifolious. 3=Solidago nemoralis, in addition to those mentioned in note 5. ^•'.A^rtemsia aromatica, A. cana, A. frigida, A. ludviciana. s^Statements made by Craig, "W^allace: "North Dakota Life," Bull. Am. Geog. Soc. XL. pp. 401-415, 1908, have led to the erroneous generalization bv a few animal ecologists unfamiliar with birds that gregariousness is a characteristic of steppe birds. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 87 4. Social flocking^'* is less prominent than among the birds of the woods, water, or prairies, where not only do various species migrate in large flocks, but troops wander socially about in other seasons, espe- cially in winter, and several abundant species nest in colonies. The grackle, crow, swift, swallows, night-herons, black-birds, marsh wrens, numerous water- birds, and the bobolink and dickcissel are examples. If the cliff swallow which nests her© and there in the badlands, be ex- cepted, none of the abundant birds of the steppe nest in colonies. The scattered distribution of life on the steppe, noted in the preceding para- graph, is exemplified in the distribution of the nests of the stepite birds. The lark bunting and longspurs, and occasionally the Swinsou's hawk migrate in flocks which however, soon break up. Flocking in the winter is largely accidental. Birds gather where food is available, in areas swept by the wind or in patches of taller vegetation which are not snow-covered. Weedy fields, where seeds are abundant, often are the site of such gatherings. .'). Many have the ability to Avithstand strong wind. For example, seed-eaters feed during the winter in apparent comfort on wind-swept hills. 6. Females and nestlings are almost all protectively colored. This seems required by the exposure of the nesting sites. 7. Most species are highly migratory. Few individuals remain during winter, and these are of species different from those of sum- mer, except in the case of the desert horned lark. Even this species migrates somewhat. The aridity and the inactivity of other life com- bine with the cold to encourage the desertion of the steppe during the winter season. 5. Most birds have the ability to withstand the intense heat of the sun. This is especially notable in the nestlings which are often on dark ground. 9. The birds of the steppe of necessity must require but little drinking water. Heavy dews are rare. 10. The power of acute long-range vision apiiears to be possessed by a much larged number of birds of the steppe than by those inhab- iting woodlands. Clearness of atmosphere, slightness of relief over large areas, and the widely scattered distribution of life all probably have encouraged the development of acute long-range vision. (c) Mammals. The mammals of the steppe have all acquired two or more of the following characteristics: 1. Ability to run swiftly. Examples are the antelope (32 miles an hour), jackrabbit (28 miles an hour), coyote (24 miles an hour), kit fox or swift (20 miles an hour), and gray wolf (20 miles an hour). 35 It is possible to run more swiftly upon dry grassy plains than through woods or brush, in marshes or across rugged tracts. F'or this reason the inhabitants of such plains have come to be the fleetest runners. Long distance running w^as developed among some of the larger mammals, apparently because of the. relative scarcity of places of retreat. 2. Ability to burrow. Examples are the pocket-gophers, striped gophers, badgers, prairie dogs, mice voles. About 70 per cent of the species rear their young in burrows and nearly iiO per cent of the spe- cies spend much of their time underground. Burrows are retreats from heat, cold, wind, and some enemies, and for the iirairie dog, at least in some cases, furnish access to the underground water supply. 3. Many have acute long-range vision. The fleet runners all have. ^Velocitie.s are those attained by the normal, healthy nflult when pursued by grevhounds, and are quoted fi-oin Scton, I'V. T. : Life lli.storie.s of Northern Animals, (New York, 1909). THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA This appears to have been developed by the same factors mentioned in the discussion of the vision of birds. 4. A gray or tawney type of coloration which harmonizes well with dead leaves is possessed bv nearly all. The skunk, an exception, is less in need of protective coloration than are the other mammals of the plains. 6. Ability to do without much drinkine water. Water for physio- logical activity and for cooling by perspiration is secured mainly from the food eaten. Footprints of most steppe animals are seldom seen in mud about water holes. This is especially true in regard to the rodents, including the .iackrabbit. !6i. The daily period of activity is chiefly in the early morning, in the evening, and to a lesser degree at night. Voluntary activity of almost all abundant mammals of the steppe is very limited during the heat of the summer day, when as manv as may are in the shade. Activity generates heat which must be elim- inated by perspiration, which in turn requires water, an article which ofteoi is precious. 7. Ability to hibernate. The long-distance runners and the car- nivores do not hibernate, but, with the exception of the rabbits, rodents, the most numerous mammals on the plains, do, and for longer periods than related species in other formations. Hibernation is a response to the unfavorable conditions which prevail during the winter months. 8. The larger herbivores, the bison and antelope, migrated chiefly in response to irregularity of rain and snow. "Wolves, which preyed upon them, accompanied them in their wanderings. 9. A few of the mammals of the steppe are gregarious; the bison and antelope congregated probably for protection from wolves and bears, and in response to the lack of numerous places of escape; but also in winter for the heat accumulated in a closely packed herd. Prairie- dogs are grouped in towns for protection against coyotes and certain hawks, and possibly by the somewhat restricted soil and ground water conditions which they appear to require. (d) Reptiles. The reptiles of which the bull-snake, rattle-snake, plains garter snake, and blue-racer, and the horned lizard are chief, possess a surprisingly effective coloration; hibernate for nearly half the year, or even longer; can get along without drinking water'; and are of small size as compared with related forms in more humid areas. Although the vast majority of reptiles lay eggs, three of the five abun- dant steppe reptiles (the rattler, plains garter snake, and horned-lizard) bring forth their young alive. This may be in response to the "hard" conditions imposed by the climate. (e) Insects. Concerning the insects of the steppe, the following points may be made: 1. The diurnal period of greatest activity is in the forenoon from 7-11 o'clock, after the chill of the early morning is gone but before the heat becomes oppressive.- Coition is carried on chiefly between 11 o'clock and one. During the rest of the twenty-four hours most of the insects are quiescent except when disturbed. 2. Seasonal activity is limited nearly to the warmer and more moist three or four months of the year, chiefly June, July and Aug- ust. There is almost complete inactivity during the colder and drier months of the year. Most species are dormant during ten or eleven months of the year, when many are represented chiefly by eggs. 3. Many forms burrow or occupy mamalian burrows, in so doing having retreats from wind, heat, cold and some enemies. Steppe spe- cies in many cases burrow to much greater depths than related species of other communities. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 89 4. There is a predominance of hoppers or fast walkers. The development of hopping as a chief mode of progression is not so much discouraged on the steppe as in several other formations hy frequent collisions with tall vege'tat'on. The habit of runnina: is favored by bare soil and is more marked among insects of the drier than of the moister parts of the steppe, and still more among those of the desert. 5. Few species spend much time on the wins. The windiness of the steppe discourages extended flights. The occasional large flights of locusts form conspicuous exceptions to this rule. ( B ) THE BI'FFATX>-GRu\>IA GRASS OR CLUVfAX STEPPE ASSOCIATION. This is the short-grass association par excellence and in many respects is the most characteristic steppe assoriation. In the central part of the steppe region it is found on a variety of medium soils, lighter clays, silts and loams, and is the dominant association over wide stretches. As the heavier and lighter soils are alte-ed to loams by mixture and other processes, and as the drainage is perfected and ruggedness decreased, this association is extended at the expense of the other steppe associations. To the east of the Great Plains province, the buffalo-grama grass association is represented on the high prairies on well drained clay 'soil. In the more arid belt to the west it is found whe''e the run-off is less rapid, as on the flatfish tops of buttes and on terraces. One of the two dominant grasses, the short, curlv, buffalo-grass, is less tolerant of sand than is the taller grama grass, various species of which are of secondarv importance in distinctly s^ndy areas. The life of this assoriation is more varied than that of other parts of the steppe. Many of the species mentioned as represented generally in the steppe are most abundant here, and in no other part of the stei)pe is found so large a number of specie's. In addition, the Triple- awned grass is abundant upon the more silty and loamy areas, and the needle grass (Stipa), and June grass (Koeleria cristata( on the more sandy soil. The small milkweed (Asclepias pumila), the pincushion cactus (Mamillaria vivpare), and Parosela aurea are rather numerous. Nearly all the birds of the steppe nest usually or occasionally in this association. The Sprague's Pipit is here characteristic. The bison and the pronghorned antelope appear to have been at home here. The striped gopher is most abundant here, but reptiles and toads are less abundant. -^ (C) THE NEEDLE GRASS OR SANDY liOAM STEPPE ASSOCIATION. This association occupies uplands on sandy-loam soil and is char- acterized by the needle, devil's or spear grass and .lune 'grass .lust mentioned. In areas of rather uniform s-^il and tojiographic conditions these two grasses may dominate. In more eandy areas, coarse herbs of astragalus, lui)ines and psoraleas are very conspicuous and com- paratively uniformly distributed, and sand grass occupies small areas especially on slopes. In soils having a larger percentage of silt or clay, there are patches of buffalo and grama grass. The lead-plant is in evidence in areas of coarse sand, or gravel mixed with finer mate- rials. These herbs, and others that are represented less abundantly, have showy blue flowers. During the weeks preceding the shedding of the needles, this association is perhaps the most beautiful of those of the steppe, because of the needles which glisten and wave in the breeze and the blue flowers then conspicuous. These are set off by the yellow '".AKtrap:alus mollissimus. A. ad-sursens. A. canadfn.si.s: I.,upiiius pusillus. 90 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA and brownish flowers so widespread on the steppe. When the needles are ripe they become readily attached to clothing, Ion? hair or wool, and by the help of several twists which develyop as the needles dry, readily work inward and often cause pain. For obvious reasons, hay containing many needles is much less desirable than common prairie hay. The mowing and grazing, especially bv sheep, of areas infested with needle grass is confined preferably to the season before the seeds begin to ripen in July, or after the needles have fallen. (I)) THE WHEAT CKASS OR CLAY STEPPE ASSOCIATION The dominant grass or clay is the western wheat grass, sometimes popularly known as salt grass. It is widespread in areas where shales outcro]) and along flood-plains. The generalized soil map (Fig. 2) shows the area of clay soils, and thus the region in which this association is most widespread. This grass has a very much larger percentage of its growth more than two inches from the soil than do the other widespread stei)pe grasses of fairly level areas. It also responds to an increased supply of water in a more satisfactory manner than the other abundant steppe grasses; in fact in some places and in some seasons, it attains a height of two feet. It therefore is a valuable hay crop along the flood- plains and on other areas which are flooded frequently, but upon which the water does not stand long. Because clay is relatively impervious. the percentage of absorption is slight except where the water stands for a time. Because of these geographic factors, enterprising farmers and stockmen erect wing dams and dig contour ditches in favorable places, and use flood waters to produce excellent meadows. Although wheat grass is present in a rather pure stand in areas which are flooded frequently, in many places various other species are conspicuous. The variety of abundant plant and animal life is normally less in this than in other parts of the steppe however. On well drained slopes on the "gumbo," the vegetation is scanty except in wet seasons, and the soil is littla concealed. Among the scatterel growth of grass, various chenopods-T and the crucifer pepper- grass (Lepicium) and prickly pear cactus and the dock (Rumex venosus) are conspicuous in many places, as are also the Dakota vetch and the gum weed. On the somewhat alkaline soil of many "blow-outs" and other undrained depressions, alkali grass replaces wheat grass, while the smaller prickly-pear is in many places exceedingly abundant. Two or three kinds of chenopods are often conspicuous. -« On valley flats the spurge, "snow-on-the-mountain" (Euphorbia margiiiata, E. Arkansaiia) is dominant in some seasons in many places, especially near the bluffs and in prairie-dog towns. It is perhaps the most conspicuous annual growing on the steppe. The bur-tomato (Solanum rostratum) is another annual which is sometimes conspicuous in similar situations, and also in deserted fields. Since valley flats receive the run-off from an extensive area, there is a sporadic accurrence of numerous species belonging to other associations, many of which however, do not mature their seeds. The wheat grass association is at many points contiguous to groves — "-Li^^ streams and to shrubby associations, especially the buck bush "•Atriplex canescensus, A. hastata, A. Nuttallii, A philonitra- Chenonofliiim album. C. Frtmonti;. 0. glaucum, C. dacoticum, C subslab^um C urati^^^^^^ ■•«This grass is Distichlis spicata: the cactus. Opuntia frae-ilis- the rr,c^t pu?^H^t"%aSimn°rp.t.vmon:;!:'% nf"t^''^" ■ ""^^ Moiolep's ''nfttaHiana. The is ehlracter/stic of blow-'^oX ^""^^^^'"^■^ ^« conspicuous and nearly always THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 91 and sage, and upon the areas of aliuvium, with buffalo-grama or meadow grass associations. Few birds nest in the wheat grass associations. The relative bar- reness of the upland areas and the frequency of flooding of the other portions are doubtless major deterrent influences. The sharp-tailed grouse, however, is more numerous in 'the flood-plain phase of this asso- ciation than elsewhere, possiblv because the taller vegetation affords more protection than the upland associations. Each prairie-dog has one or more broods of burrowing owls. The prairie-dog is the most consjiicuous mammal. In parts of this association, notably in Custer and Fall River counties, nearly every low terrace along the valleys is occupied along much of its extent by prairie- dog towns. The danger of being drowned out by the flood waters is greatly decreased by piling up around each hole much of the dirt brought up from below. Many entrances are as much as 12 or 15 inches above the general level of the "flat." This piling up is not accidental, as is shown by the repeated repairing by scraping dirt in from the periphery of the mound, and by the fact that in areas not subject to frequent flood- ing the detritus brought up from below is scattered widely. The long- tailed weasel and the black footed ferret, which prey upon the prairie- dog, are numerous, though not often seen. Gophers and other burrowing mammals are lacking" in most of the flood-plain areas in the gumbo region, probably because of the floods. (E) THE m XCH-GKASS OR DRY-SOIL STEPPE ASSOCIATIOX The dominant feature of this association is the bunch grass, which attains a rather uniform height of about 15 inches. These clumps are stiff, sparingly eaten, and are conspicuous throughout the year since they are seldom covered by snow for more than a short time. This association has two distinct phases, (1) on slopes in rugged areas, bluffs along streams and in moraines, where the soil is not clay or sand; (2) on relatively pure sand. The latter may be subdivided into ^a) the more nearly level stretches and (b) the sandhills. The first phase occupies but a small total area, but a widespread, being present in each of the districts and in most of the sub-districts of the area. The second phase is most widespread in middle and western Nebraska where sand commonly heaped into dunes is dominant. The area of dunes reaches a very short distance into south-central South Dakota. This association also is present in some places along valleys where the alluvium is very sandy. The determining geographic factors in this association appear to be a scarcitv of moisture in the surface layers of the soil, and a soil which is readily penetrated by roots. Tn areas of sand, although the run-ofC is slight, there is normally but little moisture in the ui)per six inches or more. This is the result of the active efvaporation which persists until the capillary tubes are broken. Consequently vegetation possessing only shallow root systems, as does much of that of the buffalo-grama and wheat grass associations, is barred. The vegetation of this association is characterized by the possession of deeply i)enetrating root systems, in many cases with prominent "tap-roots." The Spanish bayonet or soap-weed (Fig. 7) is conspicuous, while Mentzelia and the pasque flower are numerous on the steeper slopes outside the sandhills.'''' The bird most generally nesting in this association is the western vesper sparrow. The western field sjiarrow is locally numerous. Several mammals, notably the jack rabbit, coyote and badger, often rear their young in the rugged areas dominated by bunch-grass. Such areas afford 39Yucca Klauca; M€>ntzolia nucia and M. rlecapetala; Pul.^atilla hirsutissima. 92 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA i partial protection by their tall vegetation as well as by their relief. The rapid run-off of the rainfall is an additional factor in their desirability as resorts of these mammals. The sandhills*" as seen from a distance are not inviting; they appear as a low line of monotonous yellowish hills, or, if one can look down from a divide, a complex of irregularly arranged dunes with here and there the glimmer of a pond. Only a bright yellow of a patch of freshly exposed sand, or the dark green of a marsh filled with vegetation, break the monotony. It is only when one gets within the dune district, and sees the variety of vegetation that the reason for the reputation which sandhill districts have among botanists and picknickers, becomes evident. There is a striking contrast between the more level, dry clay plains covered with a carpet of short "buffalo" grass, and the rough sandhills with their tall clumps of bunch grass, many fruiting shrubs, and narrow valleys filled with dense thickets through which ripple clear, cold brooks. Though the sand is fairly fertile, it is likely to drift badly when cultivated. Pas- tures here are in ill repute, because of the tendency of their soil to blow; and although there are small meadows, the roads are so heixvy that it does not pay to haul hay far. Perhaps it is the impression of irredeemable wildness that gives the sandhills part of their attractiveness. The many differences between the adjacent grassy plains and the sandhills seem to be due almost entirely to the sand. In elevation there is no notable difference; it is not likely that there is more precipitation; it is readily apparent that the sandhills in general are no cooler. The sand, being loose and porous, absorbs at once all rainfall, even of a heavy shower. For a short time after a rain, the evaporation is very rapid, more rapid than water can be supplied from below by capillary action. Consequently the capillary tubes become broken and evaporation stops before any considerable percentage of the recent precipitation has disappeared. The balance escapes slowly, chiefly from the leaves of the vegetation and from the many voluminous springs which supply the brooks that drain the region. As might be expected, the air temperatures become very high during sunny days, especially in the depressions. This superheated air rises and joins the general wind which often becomes very drying. The vege- tation must either be able to endure rapid evaporation or it must be able to resist drying by possessing restrictions against evaporation. Both responses are found: The bunch grass (Andropogon), roses, bush-morn- ing-glory, sunflower, and sand thistle are examples of the former; the cacti, sand cherry, yucca and prairie-pink are conspicuous examples of the latter. A number of the characteristic plants have much longer tap roots than even closely related species of the areas of harder subsoil; a few, including the cacti, bush-morning-glory, and Psoralea lanceolate have organs for storage of water. The prominent plants are perhaps the following :4i The bunch grass is dominant: sand grass, and spear or needle grass are common, both growing here in small clumps. Grasses growing between the bunch- grasses are hair grass, grama grass, and the sand-burr. The shrubs of the sandhills are sand-cherry, choke-cherry, plum dogwood, prairie willow, lead plant, buffalo-berry, and the wild rose. Spanish bayonets are numerous. ^opool, R. J.: The ^ eg-etation of the Nebraska Sandhills, 1914, is a volum- inous report. For a brief earlier account, see Visher, S S • The plants of the S. D. Sandhills, American Botanist. 1914. "The technical names of these i)rominent plants are: Andropoeon sco- panus, Calamovilfa lonp^ilfa, Stipa Comata, Eragrostis trichodes, Bouteloua hirsuta, Cenchrus tribuloides; Prunus Besseyi, P. melanocarpa, P americana. < ornus stolonifera. Salix humilis, .\morpha canescens, Leparg-vrea argentea, Uosa woodsii. K. ai'kansana. R. suffulta. Yucca glauca THE GEOGRAPHY OP SOUTH DAKOTA 93 The more conspicuous herbs others than grasses are perhaps^^ the annual eriogonum, spiderwort, brome rape, AUonia, Abronia, the spurges, showy Gilia, green milkweed and three members of the aper family. Legumes are numerous: Lupine, prairie clovers and the narrow-leaved Psoraleas being most numerous. The more common composites are the wormwood, the viscid aster, and FranseHa acanthicarpa. The borders of the brooks, often quite gay with flowers, are not truly a part of the steppe. Most of the animal life of sandy regions is associated with the springs and streams. The areas occupied by the typical sandhill vegetation have a sparse and not distinctive fauna so far as the larger animals are concerned. Of such typical portions, the birds most abundant are the western vesper sparrow, lark bunting and the western meadowlark. Sandy areas within the prairie region of Sanborn Countv, eastern South Dakota form eastern outliers of the breeding range of the prairie sharp- tailed grouse. The mammals most frequently seen are the jack rabbit, the cottontail, -13 the plains chipmunk and the pocket gopher (Geomys lutescens). Because of the relative wildness of rough, sandy areas, they form retreats for wide ranging mammals such as wolves and coyotes. Of the reptiles, the most abundant snake is the hog-nosed adder. The yellow striped swift is plentiful in the more southern sandhills and another lizard occurs, as does a land turtle. Several insects are abundant in sandy areas, including certain tiger beetles and the ant lion. The sandhill area along the southern margin of the state has an •exceptionally varied flora and fauna. In addition to species of more general distribution, mentioned above, the following are abundant there r** Hall's bunch grass, on the ridges; the southern sandburr, the bush morn- ing-glory, poison ivy, and dogwood. There are a few trees, especially the hackberry, cottonwood, and elm in depressions, or on the more stationary north-facing slopes. Among the herbs, the prickly poppy, sand thistle, Froelichia campestris and a fourth representative of the Caper family, are very conspicuous in season. (F-H) THE LOAV SHRUB GROUP OF ASSOCIATIONS This group of associations is represented in small areas, mostly by narrow bands, in the steppe formation. The buck-bush, is a transition stage between grassland and woodland, and the sage brush between grassland and desert. Most of the area ordinarily classed as badlands belong to the buffalo-grama and the wheat grass associations. However, on the steeper slopes, the portion most distinctly "badland," almost the only vegetation consistns of various shrubs. (F) The buck -bush or wolf berry, (S.ymphoricari)os occiden talis ) , a shrub which as a rule is about IG inches tall, forms patches in and ad- jacent to groves along valleys throughout the area. It also is found here and there on slopes, especially where soil moisture is plentiful, which more often is the case on north-facing than on other slopes. Even far from woodland, there are patches along flood-plains where the ground ^The herbs referred to are: Eriosonum annuum, Trade.scantia occidentalis, Orobanche ludoviciana, Allionia linearis, A. Nyctas'ina, Abronia micrantha, JOuphorbia hexaj?onn, E. Geyeri, Croton texensis, Gilia cephaloidea, Acerates vipldflora linearis, Cleome lutea, C. serrulata; Polanisia trachysperma; Lupinus pusillus, Kuhnistera ijurpurea, K. villosa, K. alba, Psoralea lanceolata, P. tenuiflora; Ambrosia media, A. psilostachya, Macbaerantbera .sessiliflora. *^The technical names of other animals mentioned in this parasrai>h are: Sylvilasus nuttallii ^i-anseri. l>:utamias imllidius. Canus nubilu.s, C. latran.'s. C. n. nebrascensls. Heterodon naslcus, Sceloporus undulatus concobrinus, Cnemidophorus gularis, Cistudo ornata; Cincendela scutelaria, C envigata; C. vermlsta. "Andropogon Hallil, Cenchrus carollnianus, Ipomoea leptophylla, Rhus Rydberg-ii, Cornus stolonifera riparia. Celtis occidentalis. Populus Sargentii, Ulmus americana, Argemone intermedia, Carduus plattensis, Cristatella Jamesii. 94 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA water is within reach. The buck-bush patches, many of which have a diameter of several rods, have where dense, little value for pasturage and almost none for fodder. They are cut by the mower with difficulty, nor are they killed readily by plow or fire. Wild roses are common secondary species in these patches. The chief grasses, in most places very subordinate in imiiortance, are blue-joint (Amlropogon furcatus), and wild rye (Elymiis canadensis.) There are no large animals restricted to these patches though there are many nests of birds. In the steppe region, the prairie sharp-tailed grouse, long-billed curlew, upland plover, marsh and Swainson hawks and other large birds, as well as western meadow-larks and Brewer black- birds often nest here. Cottontail rabbits and gophers (Citellus tridecem- lincatus, d Franklini), and the large field mice (Microtus ochrogaster) are at home here. Spiders are especially abundant. (G) The true .sage brush (ArtemisLa tridentata) is represented very locally in South Dakota or North Dakota on silt along the lower terraces of some of the streams of the western part of the states, notably along the Little Missouri River, Sage Creek in Pennington County, and Indian Creek in Fall River County. It is somewhat more widespread in north- western Nebraska. In these states it is a low shrub attaining less than half the height prevalent in more arid regions to the west. However, the number of individuals per square rod in many places is greater than farther west. The lance-leaved sage (Artemisia longifolia, A, filifolia) is more wide- spread and is here a taller shrub, reaching a height of two or even two and a half feet. In the western third of the state it occupies silty soil chiefly on terraces. The vegetation between the clumps of sage in many places is dom- inated by patches of buffalo grass. Upon soil which is almost bare, the curious foliations lichen I'arnielia MoUinscuIa is abundant in many places. Clumps of prickly pear cactus are conspicuous. The most conspicuous bird characteristic of the sage-brush of this state is the sage hen, which was numerous here until a few years ago. It is being exterminated rapidly. The most notable insect is the large black and white sage-moth, which is very conspicuous for a few days in July or August. The larvae feed upon sage leaves. (H) BADLANDS Badlands are developed in many places on clap in the Great Plains; those in the south-central part of the state and in Harding County in the northwestern corner are especially extensive. Large sections of these badland areas are comparatively barren. Still larger portions are nearly level and grass covered. (Fig. 5.) The latter are discussed under the wheat grass and buffalo-grass associations. (a) Conditions. In regard to precipitation, these areas fare about the same as does the rest of the steppe. Their average temperature is probably greater because of many slopes and the partial protection from the wind. The whitish clay reflects the sunlight, resulting in a great intensity of light at times. During other hours of the day, a given spot may be in the shade. Shade can always be found along the arroyas and behind steep-sided buttes. The rapidity of erosion in badlands, and the tendency for the clay to crumble and crack, are two factors apparently very important in controlling the vegetation. Another perhaps even more important factor is the inability of the materials to absorb or hold water. In the White River Bad Lands there are some sandhills, and some of the nearby badland buttes are capped with sand. Erosion is evidently as rapid on such buttes as elsewhere, but a rank vegetation flourishes, apparently because of the water absorbed in the sand. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 95 (b) Cliaracteristic plants and animals of the badlands. In the more rugged badland areas ( Fig. 1 2 ) vegetation is scanty. Such as there is, is mainly shrubby and possesses long ta]) roots. Various shrubbv com- posites are especially conspicuous, especially the rabbit bush, Gutierreizia Sarothrae, G. Divaricata; blue-aster; golden-aster; false bone-set; and several species of sage. Other plants are the gumbo-lily; Mentzelia; Salt bush; prickly pear; grease weed; and locally, Chenopodiuni watsonii. At the foot of the buttes, two annuals, the showy spurge, and thistle- tomato, frequently are found. Along the channels, the buffalo-berry forms many large thickets, and on the more shaded side of many buttes, clumps of western red cedar may furnish many good fence posts. 4'« The badlands, because of their relative inaccessibility, are the home of several carnivores. Gray wolves and coyotes are more frequently met here than elsewhere. Bobcats^f! are ])lentiful. The puma or mountain lion was formerly not rare. A few antelope still feed on some of the "flats." Bighorn sheep, and mule deer formerly were common and the bighorn may not yet be extinct in the White River Bad Lands. The mammals now most frequently seen in badlands are the striped chip- munk and gray rabbit. The chief birds are the rock wren. Say's phoebe. cliff swallow, violet green swallow, western lark sparrow, turkey buzzard, and prairie falcon. Rattlesnakes are not lacking, though far from common. The horned lizards f "toads") are seen occasionally. (c) The badland life displays several peculiarities. The plants are mainly long-lived perennials, chiefly shrubby composites, and possess powerful tap and anchor roots and narrow and pubescent leaves. Such shrubs offer great resistance to erosion, undercutting, and slumping. Thev also are conservative, late-flowering, and present to cattle very little edible material. Nearlv every species has yellow flowers. In addition to these perennials, there are various annuals which thrive during wet years on the moister alluvial flats. The animals are grayish in color with the excention of the bats, swallows and swifts. The crevices and cavelets furnish homes for the chinmunk, bat. bobcat. Sav's phoebe. pra'rie falcon, and rock wren. The cliff swallow and white-throated swift find cliffs suitable for nesting sites. Several of the larger mammals, notably the bighorn sheep and mule or black-tailed deer, are powerful jumpers. II. THE .PR.\IRIES OR F.ATRI.V l^fOTST GRASS-COVERED PIi.\IXS 1 . T>i«tribut?on The eastern third of South Dakota (Fig. 29) is ofcunied chieflv bv a single association, chara'^terized. as f^r as the vegetation is concerned, by fairly short erasses which almost comnletely oov^r the (ground, eiving a firm turf, and by the wide-spread absence of native treee or bunch- grasses. 2. Conditions The moisture coufiiticns are less severe t^an unon the stenne. There Is more precipitation and its seasonal distribution and regularity is more **The sciPntific names of the above badland plants are: Chrvsotbarmus Braveolens; Senecia canus; Town.sendia pradiflora: Chrysopsis hirsutissima: Kuhnia plutinosa: Artemisia flllfolia, A. lonprifolia. A. "frislda; Pachylophus caespitosus, P. macroerlottis. P. montanus; Mentzelia decapetala. M. nuda, M. stricta; A triplex Nuttallii, A. Suckley'ana, A. arprentea; Opuntia fraprilis; Sarcobatus vermiculatus: Kuphorbia marpinata; Solanum rostratum; Lopar- grea CShepherdia) arprentea; Juniperus scopulorum. .T. .sabina. "The followiner are the technical names of the remaining- badland inam- mal.s anl reptiles nr^ntioned: T>ynx rufiis. Felis concolor Antelocatira amerl- cana. Ovls canadensis niidoboni: Odocolleus h. bemionus, Futamias pallidus, Crotalus confluentus; Pbrynosoma dousLissii bermaudesi. A common bat is Myotis californlcus ciliohriim. 96 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA favorable. (See the discussion of Bio-geographic district I, p. .) In regard to temperature and windiness there are no marked differences between the two districts. The prairie has less sunshine than the steppe, the relative humidity is higher, and the rate of evaporation less rapid. The soil, a glacial clay-loam, is fairly uniform over wide areas. There are two phases, distinguished, so far as the plants are con- cerned, chiefly by the manner of growth. On the low prairies, which receive, in addition to the normal rainfall, run-off from the high prairies and, are thererfore more moist (mesophytic) as well as nearer to the ground-water level, there is a taller, more luxuriant, and denser growth, of vegetation than upon the well-drained uplands. 3. DOMINANT PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF THE PRAIRIE (a) Plants. The grasses are mostly turf-formers having, with a few e«ceptions, an average height at maturity of a foot or more, with over half of their bulk more than six inches from the sod. The dominant grasses are+' species of Koeleria, Spcrobolus, Eatonia, and Panicum, with red-top, false red-top, screw grass and blue-joint abundant in wide areas. There' are several secondarv species.^'' TVte chief herbs a^'e^f the prairie- clovers, golden-rods, vervains, asters, blazing-stirs and Indian turnips. There are several distinct seasonal aspects in the vegetation ■"'> The prevernal is characterized chiefly'''^ by Poucedan^nn, the pasoue flower and the Indian tobacco: the vernal byS2 thp buffilo-b'^an, wh'te anemone, pentstemon, violets and manv others;-"'^ the aestival aspect by the lead plant, vervains, pine-anple flowers, b'ack-eyed susans,''* and others:"' the serotinal stage bv prairie clovers a»id blizings-stars,'"'" and certain grasses',"' and the autuminal stage chiefly by goldenrods, asters and sun- flowers."''? There are two shrubs, low and relatively insignificant, which are widespread, the prairie rose,''-' and the lead plant or "shoe-string." ■'"Koeleria cristata: Sporobolus asper, S. crystandrus, S. heterolepus; Katonia obtusata; Panicum Scriberianum, P. capillare, A. argrostis alba; Poa triflora; Scbedonnardus paniculalus, Andropogon furcatus, A. scoparius. '•"Agrostis liyemalis: Poa neinoralis, P. compressa, P. pratensis. •"'Petalo.stomon (Kuhnistera) purpureuin, P. candidum: Solidago mis- souricHcis, S. rigida, S. hemoralis; Verbena stricta, V. bracteosa; Aster seri- ceu.s, .\. multiflorus, A. commutatis, Liatris punctata, L. scariosa; L. sjjicata; P. soralea argophylla, P. esculenta. ^"Harvey L. R.: Floral Succession in the Prairie-grass Formation of S. E. South Dakota Bot. Gaz. XLIV, pp. 81-108, and 277-320, 1908. "Peucedanum nudicaule, P. foeniculeum; Pulsatilla patens; Antennaria campestrig, A. neodiocia; Draba micrantha. ^=Speisia (Argallus) Lambertii, S. sericea; Astragalus crassicarpus, A. plattensis, A. hypoglottis; Anemone carolinana, A. cvlindrica; Pentstemon gracilis, P. grandiflorus, P. albidus; Viola pedatifida, V. Nuttallii. '^Oxalis violacea, O. stricta; Lithospermum eanescens, L. angustlfolum; Sisynnchium angustifolum; Castilleja sessiliflora; Carex media, C festucacea; Meriolix serrulata; Hedeoma hispida; Polygala alba; Vicia linearis; Senecio plattensis; Onosmodium molle; Poa pratensis, P. compressa. "Amorpha eanescens; Verbena stricta, V. obtusata; Ratibida columnaris; Brauneria pallida. "^•Koeleria cristata; Festuca octoflora, Panicum Scriberianum; Erigeron ramosus; Potentilla hippiana; Delphinium carolinianum; Allonia linearis; Acer- ates vindiflora linearis; Physalis heterphylla; Petalostemon purpureum, P. canididum. ^'Liatris (Lacinaria) squarrosa, L. punctata, L. scariola; Carduus undu- latus; Hymenopapinis filifolius. ^'"Boiitrloa oligostachys, B. hirsuta, B. curipendula; Agropyron occidentale; CalamovUfa longifolia. /".Solidago rigidn. S. rigiduscula. S. missouriensis. S. nemoralis. Aster sericeus, A^ oblongifolius, A. multiflorus; Helianthus scalrerrimus, H. Mexi- miUanus. H. petioians; also Andropogon furcatus, A. scoparius; Sporofolus brevifol'us; Artemisia gnaphaloides; Kuhnia glutinosa, K. eupatoroides; Aabalus asper; Dysodia papnosa: Grindelia squarrosa •"Rosa pratincola, R. Arkansana. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 97 (Amorphia canesceiis.) The buck bush/'" (p ) forms patches on some hill-sides. (b) Birds. The chief birds of the prairies are the prairie homed lark, prairie chicken, western meadowlark, grasshopper sparrow, western vesper sparrow, chestnut-collared longspur, upland plover, Bennett's nighthawk, burrowing owl, and Swainson's hawk. (c) MammaLs. The more notable mammals are«i the eastern spermaphile badger, skunk, jack rabbit, weasel, pocket gopher, and for- merly the bison and pronghorn antelope. Meadow mice'''^ are abundant, especially in grain fields. Moles are found in some of the lawns of the eastern edge of the state. (d) Reptiles. There are two fairly common snakes, the bull snake, (Pityophis catenifer sayj ) and the blue racer, (Basconion constrict'>r flaviveiitris.) Formerly the prairie rattler was found occasionally. (e) (Other animals.) The only amphibian seen frequently in the prairie association is the common toad (Bufo americana.) There is a much greater variety of invertebrates than in the steppe. One land snail (Succinea sros^enari), is fairly abundant. (4) SOME CHARACTERISTiaS OF THE PRAIRIE BIOTA The denser turf and taller vegetation and the less marked specializa- tion of root system, as contrasted with the vegetation of the steppe, appear to be associated with the less arid conditions. Nearly a third of the species are composites, 1-5 grasses, 1-8 legumes, the remaining belong to many families. About 96 9'r are herbs or grasses, 20% wind pollinated. Among the animals the specialization is chiefly similar to that possessed to animals of the steppe, but is not so extreme. III. THE >IEAI)OW OR TALL (iRASS FORMATION (1) Distribution. Areas dominated by a close growth of tall grasses are found in all districts of the state, but are distinctly more numerous and extensive in the less arid sections. The flood-plains of the eastern third of the state are occupied throughout much of their extent by one of these associations; another, lives in many places in grassy ravines or draws, especially in the eastern third of the state and in the higher parts of the Black Hills, while a third occupies the low meadows bordering bodies of water. The most obvious characteristic of this formation is a turf composed of tall grasses or of tall grasses and coarse herbs and, locally, low shrubs. Instead of a large percentage of the vegetation being found within a few inches of the ground, or in small patches or clumps, as in the case in the other grass formations of the state, the grass in this formation grows rankly to a height, commonly of more than three feet, and occasionally to nearly or quite twice that height. (2) Conditions. The geographic condition seemingly favorable for this association is the proxmity of the ground water at all times. ( ;'> ) Dominant Plants and Animals of Meadows (a) I'lants. Along the flood-plains the dominant plants are'-'' the wild rye, panic, wheat, brome and blue-joint grasses. Coarse herbs are ■■"Pymnhorocai-iius racemosus, S. orbicul'itus. S. occidertalis. •■iftelliis t. fridecenilineatus: Taxirlea t. taxus: Mephistis hudsonica; SpilotraU- irtcrrunta: Ijpnu.s c. campestris; Mustella longicauda; Geomys bur- .sariii.s; Thomomys t. talpoides '-K'cotomy.s sr-^tiTipri loringi; Microtus p. pennsylvanicus, M. ochrogaster; rorenmyscus m^nir-ulatus. '■■■'Rlymus canadeir-is. E. Ftriatus. l•^ \iitrinicus: Panicum virpratum; Agro- pyron tenerum, A. violaceum; rJrornus ciliatus; AndropoKon furcatus. Sig.— 7. 98 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA in evidence. Examples are^i the milkweed, showy spurge (snow-on-the- mountain), beard tongue, cinquefoil, golden-rods, and certain sunflowers. Patches of buck-bush and wild roses are common and furnish shade in which tree seedlings start. In the moist grassy ravines or "draws" blue-joint ( Calaog,'rostLs oanatlensis) or blue-stem (An(h"opoaon furcatus) is dominant, with tickle (Agrostis hymalis) and panic (l*anicuin Scribnerianum) grasses common. Along running water or en boggy soil the slough or cord grass (Spar- tina cjiiosuroides ) is predominant. The vegetation of the low meadows grades into that of the marsh. The slough grass (Spartina), wheat grass (Agropyron), in some local- ities incorrectly called salt grass, and blue-stem (Andropogon) are most conspicuous. Sedges ( Carex, Cyperus, Scirpus) dominate in some places. (b) Birds. The marsh hawk, bobolink, dickcissel, short-eared owl, and, in a certain sedge (Carex sp ) the short-billed marsh wren are the chief birds nesting in meadows in this state. In the western part of thei state the long-billed curlew and the western grasshopper sparrow, and in the northwestern corneir the Baird's sparrow nest most frequently in the tall grass of the moist draws. (c) Other Animals. These areas are so limited in extent in this state that perhaps no vertebrates are restricted to them. However, various meadow mice (Micotus, Evotomys, Perognathus) are most abun- dant and jack rabbits (Lepus c. cainpestris) and cotton tails (Sylvi- lagus floridanus similis, S. nuttalii grangeri) more frequently have their nests in draws than on the more exposed upland. Burrowing animals are rare in the moister portions of the meadow, doubtless because of the proximity of ground-water and the consequent likelihood of flood- ing. ( 4 ) The life and the environment. Most plants possess roots appar- ently able to penetrate to the water-table. The rank growth of veg- etation reflects favorable conditions. Several birds nesting in the meadows are of large size such as the marsh hawk, short-eared owl, and grouse. The rank vegetation affords protection for their nests, such as could not be found elsewhere in this region. IV. THE WOODLAXD. ( A ) In General. 1 Distribution of Wooded Areas. Woods are found (a) along flood-plains, (b) in ravines and gulches, (c) on certain steep slopes or bluffs, (d) on the upland in the Black Hills and certain buttes. Little of South Dakota is forested. It is estimated that there is about 2, .500 square miles of national forest, of which more than 2,000 is in the Black Hills. In addition, there are some 600 square miles of planted wood-lots and wind breaks. A fairly heavy stand of timber is found in the Black Hills and in parts of the Sioux For- est Reserve in Harding County (Slim Buttes, Cave Hills and the Short Pine Hills). There also are extensive groves of large trees in the lower sections of the Missouri flood-plain. Smaller groves of smaller trees are found in the flood-plains of many other streams. Even in the Great Plains there are some trees along the permanent streams. There are some trees in many of the steeper ravines, especially those that slope north. Few tree species are native on the uplands; the pine (Pinus scopuloruni ) in the Black Hills and the burr oak (Quercus macro- mo ,.l*,^a^t^®^*?-? ?ya'i'?"a. A. speciosia, A. syriaca. A. vprticellata: Euphorbia ^n«o^i^^ 'o ^-/i ''^^^"- • i^®"*^*®'""" Rrandiflorus; Potentllla pennsylvanica; P. ansenna; Solidago nsula; Helianthus annuus THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 99 capra) in Gregory and Tripp counties and along the lower Sioux val- ley being chief. The native forest trees of the state are of two types (1) deciduous, mostly restricted to valleys, and (2) coniferous, widespread topographi- cally, but not dominant in the valleys, except locally at high eleva- tions in the Black Hills. 2 The Ceographio Conditions The general climatic conditions of the woodland areas differ only in degree from those of the general area. Thei temperatures are some- what less extreme and probably average lower; the precipitation is probably not greater, though because' of greater absorption, it is more effective; the interior of the woods is much less windy than the open. Most, if not all, of the deciduous trees of the state have roots which penetrate to the level of permanent ground-water. The more- hardy trees such as the green ash and the western Cottonwood are celebrated for their deep tap-roots. The trees shade the ground and the lower vegetation, locally making the light and temperature condi- tions at least periodically very different from those prevailing in the open. The trees and under-brush check the winds, and in so doing decrease the rate of evaporation. The aborescent vegetation furnishes nesting sites for birds as well as food for many insects and other animals. 3 Dominant Plants and Animals. (a) Plants. The chief trees are (1) the western yellow pine (P. scopuloram ) , the most important lumber tree of the Black Hills and of the forested buttes of Harding County. It is represented along Pine Ridge as far east as the 101st meridian, (2) The western red cedar (Juniperus scopulorum ) is found sparingly on the Missouri River bluffs, and more abundantly on the buttes, especially in the badlands, and in the Black Hills. Probably hundreds of thousands of fence posts have been cut from "cedar brakes" in the western half of the state. (3) The western Cottonwood (Populus Sargentii) is widespread along flood-plains. It has been used chiefly for fire^-wood. (4) The green ash (Fraxinii-s lanoeolata), forms many groves in the flood- plains of the eastern third of the state, and also about the forested buttes. It is valued for posts. (5) The boxelder (Acer negundo), hack- berry (Celtis occidentalis), elm (Ulmu.s americana, U. fulva) and peach- leaved and black willows (Salix aniydaloides, S. nigra) are fairly wide- spread but of much less importance than the trees mentioned above. The burr oak ( qniacrocarpa ) is of minor importance except in Gregory and Tripp counties. The large shrubs include the wild plum (Prunus americana, choke- cherry (P. nielanocarpa), June or service-berry (Amelanchier alniforlia,, A. spicata), hawthorn (Crataegus macrooantha, O mollis, C. Sheridana)^ and in certain sections the sumac (Rhus glabra), black haw (Viburnum: lentago), and the skunk-bush (Rhus trilobata. Among the more abun- dantly represented lower shrubs are the buck-bush (Symphorocarpus race^ mosa, S. occidentalis), wild rofee (Rosa woodsi, R. Fendlcriana), west- ern poison ivy (Rhus rydbergi) and various wild currents and goose- berries. The chief lianes (climbers), are the wild grape (V'itis vulpina), woodbine ( Parthcnicissus vitacca) and bittersweet (Celastris scandens). There are many herbs. The more abundant grasses are the wil.l rye (Elymus), blue-joint (Andropogon) and blue grass (Poa), and others of the meadows along flood-plains, mentioned above. Other con- spicuous and widespread herbs include the horse mint (Monarda fistulosa. 100 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA M. mollis, M. meiithaefolia), cow parsnip (Heracleum lanatum), false soloman-seal (Smiliciiia stellata), carrion flower (Smilax hispida), twisted-stalk ( Stieptipus amplexifolius ) , thistles (Caiduus fllipendulus, C. vii-ginianuni ) , golden-rods (Solidago arguta, S. canadensis, S. sero- tina, S. pitcheii), and violots (Viola canadensis, V. cuculata, V. pubescens, V, scarbriuscula). In the more deeply shaded woods, especially in ravines, numerous additional genera and species are represented. (b) Birds. There is a considerable variety of bird life in the woods, including in most of the state, the western mourning dove, bob- white, hairy woodpecker, northern and Batchelder's downy and red- headed woodpeckers, common and redshafted flickers, screech owl, spar- row hawk, crow, blue jay, bronzed grackle, eastern and Arkansas king- birds, alder flycatcher, common and arctic towhees, goldfinch, rose- breasted grosbeak, black-headed grosbeak or western blue grosbeak, western chipping sparrow and . western lark sparrow, white-rumped shrike, yellow warbler, yellow-breasted and long-tailed chats, warbling vireos (V. g. gilva, V. g. swainsoni), western housei wren, catbird, brown thrasher. In the western part of the state there are several mountain birds. Those especially conspicuous are the magpie, pinon jay and Canada jay, and the western robin. (c) Mammals. Formerly, the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virgin- ianus macrourus), puma, and* black bear were abundant in all wooded areas. The first is extinct except in the Black Hills and the Sioux Forest Reserve, while the others are to be found in the Black Hills, if anywhere in the state. The wood rabbit (Sylvvilagus floridanus siniilis, S, auduboni baileyi), a variety of cottontail, white-footed mouse (Onycho- mys 1. leucogiister) and other mice, gray gopher (Citellus Franklini), and certain bats (Myotis 1. lucilig'us, Eptesicus f. fuscus, Xycteris 1. bore- alis), are the more numerous mammals found in all woods, but the porcupine (Erethizon e cpicanthum, E. d. dorsatiim) and chipmunk (Eutamias m. minimus, E. pallidus) are plentiful in the western half of the state and bob-cats (Lynx c. canadensis, L. r. rufus), and raccoons (Procyon 1. lotor) are not rare. The fox squirrel (rufiventer) is fairly abundant in the southeastern corner of the state, and the Dakota red squirrel (Hiidsonicus dakotensis) in the Black Hills. (d) Other animals. There appear to be no snakes characteristic of South Dakota woods. The lizard known as the swift (Sceloporus) is seen occasionally in the southeastern quarter. Tree frogs (Acris gryl- lus) are rare in the state, but not absent. The American toad (Bufo ameiac^nus ) is somewhat common. Seven genera of land snails«« are recorded from the woods of the state by Wm. H. Over of the State Survey, who kindly supplied most of the data on mollusca given in this chapter. (4) Some Cliaracteristics of the Life of the Woods. Most of the plants have a deeply penetrating root system. This is probably due to the porous alluvial soil and the fact that the water table is within relatively easy reach. Trees exposed to the persistent winds develop strong anchor roots. Because of the generally low relative humidity, the leaves of most trees are small, and the bark of the trunk and limbs thick. The local conifers are extreme examples. The tree with the largest leaves (basswood, Tilia americana) is restricted to the more shady ravines in the most moist area, the extreme southeastern corner. Most of the shrubs and herbs also have small leaves, or other methods of retarding evaporation. Many species yield berries and "^•Dicentra cucularia; Trilluum erectum: Arisaema triphylum etc •"In groves along streams, Pyramidula cronkhiti anthonvl'. P.' alternata, Vitrina alaskana, Cochlcona lubrica: In ravines. Bifldaria armlfera Euconulus fulvus; In pine woods. Oreolielix cooper!. Euconulus fulvus THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 101 rely upon animals for seed dissemination. «" Some of the trees, notably the Cottonwood, willow, ash and boxelder, which grow in the more exposed situations, depend upon the wind to carry their seed. Most of the birds nest in trees. Many are sociable in their hab- its, at least in certain seasons. Several species nest in loose colonies. Most common species are highly migratory, apparently a response to the hard winters; but during the winter several species, in most cases migrants from the north, usually can be found in the woods. The western tree sparrow, long-tailed chickadee, redpoll, siskin and Bo- hemian waxwing, are locally common in winter. Various other charac- teristics of woodland birds have been mentioned or contrast in thei dis- cussion of the birds of the steppe. About one-fourth of the mam- mals of woods are somewhat arboreal, about one third rear their young on the ground, and about two-thirds spend most of the time on the ground, while about 4 0 per cent have burrows in which the young are reared. However, only about six per cent spend most of their adult lives underground. ''■« (B) GROVES ALONG FLOOD-PLAINS As previously noted, there are many groves in the flood-plains of the eastern third of the state, and a few smaller ones along the per- manent streams even in the most arid section. Since flood-plains re- ceive the run-off from the other wooded areas, it is natural that the other wooded flora should be more varied than in any other associa- tions. In addition to the species mentioned as of general distribution in woodlands, there are sporadic representatives of conifers, oak, sumac, and many herbs and other species more common on bluffs and in ravines. (C) RAVINE AND GULCH WOODLAND This, the most humid (mesophytic) association of the state, is represented most extensively in the valleys of the shorter tributaries of the Missouri, Sioux and Minnesota rivers, in ravines on the side of Wessington Hills in Jerauld County and the Pine Ridge in the south- central port of the state. The hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) and iron- wood (Ostrya virf»iiiiana) are fairly common, and in the southeastern corner the basswood and Kentucky coffee-tree ( Gynuiocladus dioica) are present. The dogwood (Coraus stolonifei'a ) , hawthorn (Crataegus mol- lis, C. macrocantha, C. Sheridana) and hawthorne (Vibuniiini lentago) are more abundant than in the flood-plain woods. Grasses are less im- portant. Prominent herbs in addition are the wild licorice or loose- strife (Steironenia ciliatuni), the nettle (Urtica gracili.s), alum-root (Heuchera hispida, H. valifolia), snakei root (Sanicula Marylandica, S. condensis), beggars' tick (Washingtonia longistylis), and bedstraw (Gal- ium triflorum). T.winers are Smilax hispida, Clematis occidentalis and hop (Humulus lupulus). Dutchman's breechers (Dicentra cucuUaria), jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema triphylum), columbine (Aquilegia canaden- sis), Trillium erectum and many other plants common in the woods to the east of South Dakota are represented in the woods of the south- eastern and northeastern corners of the state. The birds in addition to those common in woodlands, which nests most commonly in wooded ravines is the oven-bird. Many warblers stop in such areas during their migration. It is not known that there are any mammals peculiar to this association. The copses found near the heads of various north-facing ravines are a special phase of the ravine woodland. Their location is deter- "■'Conspicuously species of Prunus, Rhus and Crataegus. ""Shelford, V. E.: Principles and Problems of Animal Geography (Mss.) 102 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA mined by the presence of a spring, or at least of seepage. Plums (I*i'umis americana ) , chokechorry (P. melanocrapa), ash (E. lanceolala), Juneberry (Amelanchier abiifolia), and hawthorn (Crataegus sheiidana) are the more common trees and shrubs, the horsemint (Monanla men- thahorocarpus racemosa) here and there. The chief grasses are bunch grasses (Andropogon, Aristida). The western field sparrow nests commonly in this association. (E) PINE FORESTS There are about 1,400,000 acres of forest reserve in South Dakota, approximately 100,000 acres in Harding County, and the rest in the Black Hills. In the Black Hills there are tens of thousands of acres fairly well-timbered but not in the federal reserve. The geographic ronr^itions in these forests have been treated in the discussion of the Black Hills bio-geographic district and in the chapters on physiography and climate. The chief commercial tree in the reserves is the Rocky Mountain pine (Pinus [i>oiideroi?a] scoDulorum ) . Tlie red cedar (Juni- perus scopulorum) is important at lower elevations, and the white spruce (Picea alba) near the summits of the Black Hills. Ash (P lanceo- liita) and other trees (Elrr, hackberry) valuable for fence posts, are found in the valleys at low elevations. In addition to the pine, cedar, s])ruce and ash there are elms (Ulnius fulva, V Amencana), birches (Betula papyrifera, B. foutinalis, B. glandulosa), poplars of several sorts, including the Cottonwood (Pop- ulus loccidentalis] sargenti), quaking aspen (P. tremuloides) . and narrow-leaved poplar (P. aiigustifolia) , and other trees and shrubs, making a total of about 120 species of woody plants, renresenting about 30 families. Of these Fome 3 7 speeies are trees and 7 4 species shrubs. The herbaceous flora is verv rich.^^ Among the more common birds are the Lewis woodpecker, western woodpewee. white-winged junco. pinion jay, western tanas-er. cedar wax- wing, Audubon warbler, western house wren, long-tailed chickadee, western robin, and mountain bluebird. The chief larger mammals are the chipmunk (Eutamfas m. min" imu.s), Dakota red squirrel (Sriurus hiidsonius daootensis). wood-chuck (Marmota dacota), wood rabbit (Sylvilagus nudnbonii bailevi). white- tailed deer (Odociolcus anieiioanus macrouris O texanus), bobcat (Lynx o. canadensis, L. r. rufus) and pocket gopher (Thiniomys talnoides nebu- lesus). The rentiles are the green garter snakes. ' Amphibians are salamander (Amblystoma tigrium) and a species of frcg IIT isqfi^ ffi^^--^fi ■vi<=r'''^\°l ^^'f.F^^'^ "*"«■ Contrib. U. S. Natl. Herb. rLrevrW ^^i'f n^ h7\i^ aV ^'*^<^'tions to the Flora of the Black Hills: 1913 pp Vi sl 186-188, Muhlenbergria VIII, 1912, pp. 135-137. ibid IX, THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 103 V. THE AQl'ATir AXI) SEMI-AQUATIC (JUOIP OF ASSOCIATIONS ( A ) In (iencral 1 Distribution The official estimate of the area permanently covered by water in South Dakota is but 747 square miles. This includes the major rivers of the state, together with the larger streams in the Black Hills, and the larger lakes mentioned in the chapter on physiography. It is likely that at least ten times that area commonly or frequently is submerged. Thousands of small lakes go dry but seldom, and many "lake beds" contain standing water occasionally. The streams of the state are liable to overflow their banks, and as a result there are considerable tracts which are somewhat aquatic in character. The major aquatic areas are on the eastern Choteau (p. — ). During wet years there are numerous marshy or submerged tracts in the rest of the glaciated part of the state ( P^ig. 2), and also in the Great Plains where there are "blow-outs." The members of this group of associations are (1) marshes, (2) ponds, (3) lakes, (4) streams (a) brooks, (b) creeks, (c) rivers. 2 Geojp-aphic Conditions The presence, in areas permanently submerged, of an abundance of water produces a sharp contrast between such areas and the upland parts of the state. Not only is there sufficient moisture, but other conditions are greatly modified. In portions which do not freeze, the annual range of temperature is no more than 30° or 40° F. instead of at least 12 0°, a range experienced by most places exposed to the air. In bodies of water which freeze over, the range in most places is much less than that experienced on the land. The daily range of temperature in submerged and even boggy areas is verv much less than occurs elsewhere in this region. The light conditions are very different also. However, the shallowness of most bodies of water per- mits of the penetration of diffused light to the bottoms of nearly all, if not all lakes in the state. Marsh plants and other species which reach up into the air, and such animals as emerge from the water are affected by wind and sun, and suffer loss of moisture, and are battered about by the winds. The soil conditions in many submerged areas are similar, as a soft alluvial or lacustrine silt is general. Coarser materials, espe- cially cobbles and pebbles have associated with them quite different animals and plants than "muddy" areas. 3 The Dominant Plants and Animals Relatively few species are found in all sorts of water bodies, although many are widelv distributed. Examples are certain algae, pondweed (Potomogeton) , duckweed (Lemna), water buttercuj) (Batra- chium trichophyllum), milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum), several sand- pipers (the spotted, solitary, yellowlegs, and Baird sandpipers, Wilson's phalarope and killdeer), the muskrat (Fiber ziberthicus cinnamoninus), snails,"" numerous insects such as the water boatman, water striders (Gerridae) dragon flies (Aeschnidae Libellulidae) and others, leeches and protozoa. -Manv plants and animals less generally distributed will be noted below under the appropriate heads. Here it may properly be remarked that the submerged flora, microscopic forms excepted, is ■"Lymnaea i)alustris, I.,. car)eiata, I... olnni.s.sa, Phvsa svrina, I'lanorbi.s trivolvus, P. parvu.«. 104 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA poor in species, while that on the near-by wet ground is very rich; that only two or three species of mammals spend much of their time In the water, and that no bird does so. The most aquat'c birds merely dive occasionally; none can hatch their eggs except in relatively, al- though in some cases not entirely, dry nests. The turtles of the state are aauatic (except a box turtle in the sandhills of Bennett County) and the young amphibians also, although the toads leave the water soon after hatching, and the frogs spend most of their lives on land. The invertebrate fauna is far richer than that of any other formation in the state but it has not been studied in detail yet. 4 Characteristics of Aquatic life Aquatic plants and animals have striking characteristics. The plants are chieflfly semi-aquatic grasses and herbs, most of which are biennials or short-lived perennials. Very few are annuals. Ordinarily there is an abundance of available water, and transpiration can be freely indulged in; occasionally, however, the soil becomes par- tially dry. The plants which are most successful in a region where such drying-up occurs frequently are those which can resist evapora- tion. Fertilization occurs largely through the agency of insects, and the seed distribution by means of waves, currents, and animals as well as by the wind. Several "ticks" (Bidens) obviously are adapted for animal distribution. Many, if not most aquatic plants also propagate by root-runners The birds nest chiefly in reed-hung or floating nests. The females and nestlings are,, in almost every case, streaked and conse- quently protectively colored. All species are from infancy swimmers or waders. The bills are chiefly sharn and adapted to impaling, or to probing (the tip of the upper mandible being capable of independent movement), or are supplied with strainers. The mammals are all semi-aquatic and rear their young above the water-level, in burrows or houses. The muskrat, mink (Mustela vison latifer) and beaver (Castor c. canadensis) are examples. The snakes and turtles travel freely on land and lay their eggs or bring forth their young there, but spend much of their time in or on the water. The amphibians are of two sorts, the aquatic salamanders (Ambly- stoma tigrium) and the semi-aquatic frogs (Rana pipiens, Acris gryl- liis). The adaptations of frogs to life on land, bv the growth of legs and other changes, is too well known for more than mention, but the changes undergone suggest the striking differences between the habitats. Fishes resemble tadpoles in many respects. The habit of swimming against the current, which most fish inhabiting swift streams have, is an interesting method, also used by various invertebrates, of prevent- ing their being washed away by the current. Almost all of the insects characteristic of aquatic areas spend a portion, in many cases the larval stages, of their life in the water. Examples are mosquitoes, dragon-flies, damsel-flies, may-flies, water beetles and water-boatmen. ( B ) Marshes Marshy areas are found in all parts of the state, but they are more numerous and extensive in the eastern third than elsewhere. Most marshes are in depressions in the surface of the drift-sheet, but 71 Polygonum hyrtvopii.cr. P. lapathifolium. P. Muhlenbergil, P. pennsv- Ivanicum, P. persicaria. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 105 there are some along streams, in "blow-outs" (p. — ), or about springs. Many areas which are often submerged to a slight depth do not de- velop into marshes because of the frequency of the disappearance of the water. Marsh vegetation requires soil almost continually water soaked. The marshes of South Dakota may be classed as (a) those with a low vegetation of broad-leaved plants and (b) those with tall grass- like plants. ( 1 ) Many marshy areas have a dense growth of smartweed, several species of which are abundantly represented in this area. The marsh flax (Coreopsis tinctoria) grows as a secondary species in many little marshes, and makes them gaudy for several weeks with yellow and maroon colored flowers. This type of marsh appears to be far less attractive to birds than does the other. No species of bird is common in smartweed marshes, nor does the muskrat frequent such places. (2) Areas occupied by tall grasses and reeds more often are thought of as marshes than the preceding type. In this state there are three chief types, (1) those dominated bv slough or cord grass (Spartina), (2) sedge (Carev, Soirpiis, Cyperus) marshes. (3) red grass ( Calamogros- tris) and cat-tail (Typha) marshes. Wild rice (Zizaiiia palustris) is found especially in reed marshes in the northeastern corner of the state and the mountain rice (Oryzopsis) in the Black Hills. The chief marsh birds are the thick-billed redwing blackbird, yellow- head blackbird, sora and Vireinia rails, American bittern, black tern and certain ducks, such as the pintail and mallard, which nest near such marshes, especially where thev are contiguous with open water. The leopard frog (Rana pipiens) attracts the night-heron. The sala- mander (Amblystoma tierinum) is common in the larger marshes. The muskrat is the onlv mammal associated with isolated marshes. The turtle or terrapin (Melaooclemnys greosTaphica) frequently migrates into such marshes. There are in this state four species of snails which are found commonly in marshes only. (C) Ponds Ponds diiTer from marshes r-hiefly in lacking conspicuous vegetation. There is a variety of ponds: d) verv temiDorary ponds on land which is cultivated after the water disappears; () tempo'-a'-y nonds in blow- outs. In many cases in the western part of the stat« the soU of the blow-outs is surcharged with salts, and bottom nearly devo'd of veg- etation; (3) temporary pools (water-holes) along the courses of tem- porary streams. In each of these three sorts of ponds there are many algae and a short-lived fauna of entomostraca (Copepods) and the more minute invertebrates, at least ten species of snails."'? and many insects. Mosquitoes are very abundant, much more so than about areas con- taining fish and frogs. These temporary ponds are very attractive to shore birds, and in the proper season scores of individuals representing numerous species may be seen on the margins. The Killdeer and "Wil- son phalarope are the two that breed most abundantly, most of the others being migrants, but spending as long a time here as in their Arctic breeding grounds. After such ponds dry up, the larger areas may be occupied with rfquirrel tail grass (Hordoum iiibatuni). The little waterholes in many cases contain the four-leaved clover (Mar- silia) which matures its seeds onlv after exiiosure. Permanent or nearly permanent ponds are bordered by a greater variety of vegeta- tion and possess a more varied fauna than temporary ponds. "-'Lymnaea i)alustris, L. .stafiiiali.s opprfssa, T'lanorbi.s i)arvus, Ph.vsa sayi. ■^In poncl.s of classes (I) an.l (ti)': IMaiiorbis irivolns, r. hicarinntus in watfrhouis: Lymnea bulimoides cockerelli, L. caperata. Ij. obrussa, Pisidium contortum, P. overi. lOG THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA (D) Lakes Lakes differ from ponds in respect to depth: bodies of standing water deep enougli not to freeze to tlie bottom are in this region usually called lakes, even though their expanse is slight. The shallower lakes or parts of lakes may have an abundant vegetation of submerged plants, in some places of water crowfoot (Batrachium), milfoil ( Myriop- hyllum), pondweed ( Potomogetan) , hornwort (Ceratophjilum demersum) or in some of the larger lakes of water lilies (Nyniphaea advena). The duckweed (Lemiia minor) is an abundant floating plant in many lakes. Marshy tracts are found about many, and the fluctuation in level of a majority, since a majority have no outlets, is sufficient to produce mar- ginal portions which resemble temporary ponds. A large number of birds occur as migrants; for examule, some twenty-five species of ducks are recorded^* from the lakes of eastern South Dakota. Several species of water birds secure their food from lakes or from marshy tracts adjacent. Three grebes (pied-billed, eared, and western) are fairly common or locally abundant in South Dakota, as are several ducks (ruddy, scaup, baldpate). Mallards, pintails, and blue-wing teal also nest abundantly in marshy tracts bordering lakes, as do other birds mentioned under "marshes." The Franklin gull nests on many of the larger lakes of the northeastern part of the state, but secures most of its food (chiefly grasshoppers) from fields and grasslands. The only abundant mammal is the muskrat, but the mink, which preys upon it, is not uncommon, and the beaver, formerly was plentiful. Both of the two common South Dakota turtles, thei terrapin and the snapping turtle, are found in lakes, but the latter is more abun- dant in streams. There are three species of bivalve mollusks and various snails. 75 Several fishes (carp, black bass and bullheads) have been introduced into lakes, hut aside from these, few lakes' have fish of considerable size. D Streams The streams of South Dakota may be grouped into rivers, creeks and brooks. Rivers are of two distinct types, (a) the sluggish streams of the eastern section of the state, and (b) the swift streams of the western part. Streams which go dry nearly every year in parts of their courses usually are called creeks. Brooks differ from the other streams in being fed chiefly from springs afid hence normally clear. They are also permanent and swift flowing. The "creeks" in the Black Hills are considered here as brooks. The brooks in the sandhills and in the forested buttes are nearly all very short. The fauna and flora m or bordering streams is rich in species. (a) I»lants. In many places there are trees along streams; western cottonwoods and several willows are very generally distributed; the dogwood overhangs many brooks and also pools in creeks. The horse- tails (Equestum) and various sedges (Carex, Sc'rpus, Cyperus) and rushes (Juncus), notablv the spike-rush (Eleochris) are abundant on the moist margins of streams, where various species of dock (Rumex) are very conspicuous late in the season. The water plantain (Alisma), WoT^^Ii?^^*!.^ 5£!"fJ".!^l' ^"'^ several species of buttercups (Ranunculus, ic- trans- Halerpestes) are found along streams not liable to frequent wide flue tua ions in volume, or if such fluctuations occur, do not then tram port large quantities of coarse, cutting materials. In rivers and the less permanent parts of the creeks vegetation is chiefly microscopic. In the deeper pool of creeks various attached C^.y'V^::^Iy\^;orJ^l,^^^r^^,;U^^-^^^- ^-"ty. S. D.. The Auk, 1913: of THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 107 submerged plants, including the water buttercup (Batrachium), false water-cress (Roripa), pond-weed (Potomogeton) and stone-wort (hara fortid) may be found. In brooks, the true water-cress (Carde- mine) is abundant, and in many places the matgrass (Catabrosa), and there is a rich flora along the margins. The willow herl) (Epilobium), mint (Mentha), hyssop (Gratiola), water horehound (Lycopus), water hemlock (Cicuta), arrowgrass (Triglochin) , marigold or beggars' tick (Bidens), monkey flower (Mimulus), St. John's wort (Hypericum), thoroughwort (Eupatorium), skull cap (Scutellaria), and others are widespread along brooks. (b) Animal-s. Several birds are found most frequently along streams. Examples are the belted kingfisher, great blue and little green heron, and the black-crowned night heron, spotted and solitary sand- pipers, killdeer, and green and blue-winged teals and pintail ducks. The wood duck formerly was common along the streams of eastera South Dakota. The American dipper or water ousel is abundant on the streams in the Black Hills. The mammals found about the streams are the muskrat Fiber zithoi- fles ciiinaoniis), beaver Castor c. caiiadensi.s) , which still is found in each quarter of the state, and mink (Mitstela vison latifera). Formerly the otter (Lutra c. canadensis) was represented. The reptiles are the garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis), which is very abundant, and snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina). In creeks the last is found only in the deeper pools. The only amphibian which is widely abundant along streams is the leopard or grass frog (Rana pipiens). The fish of the state are few in number as well as comparatively small in size. This condition appears to be correlated with the char- acter of the streams. It is seldom that a catfish (Ictalurus) weighing more than ten pounds is caught except in the Missouri River, the deepest stream of the state, and the record for the state is placed at twenty-five pounds. In the lower Mississippi River the same species attains a weight of 100 pounds. Bullheads (Ameiurus), catfish (Ictalu- rus), carp (Cyprinus), buffalo-fish (Ictiobus), suckers (Catosomus)( and shiners or minnows ( Xotropis ) are abundant in the larger streams. Pickerel (Esox), piko (Esox), sunfish (Lepomis), perch (Perca), gar (Lepiososteus) and the red-horse (Moxostoma) also are represented in most rivers. In the brooks there are darter (Boleosoma), dace (Phox- inus), trout (Salvelinus) and minnows (Notropis). The mollusca of sluggish streams in the eastern part of the state include a variety of Unios, Anodonta, Quadrula and Sphaerium. Ano- donta (A. grandis) is the most abundant clam recorded from the west- ern half of the state. The fact that the western rivers are frequently raging torrents and carry stones of considerable size is the probable explanation of the scarcity of clams. In pools, "water holes," along creeks are found several snails of three genera.'" Many other invertebrates are found in or about streams. The fresh ""Anodonta sranrlis; Lampsili.s luteolis, Symphynota complanata; Valvata streams "Lymnea bulimoides cockerelli, L. caperata, L. obrussa, Pisidium con- tortum, Planorbis trlvolvus, P. bicarinatus. 108 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA water shrimp (Gammarus) and the planarian flat-worm (Planaria, Den- drocoelum), are exceedingly abundant about some streams, as is the snail Zonitoides. rawfish (Cambarus) are widespread. Water-beetles, water-boatmen (Corixa), backswimmer (Notonecta), damsel flies, may- flies, mosquitoes and black flies (Simulium) are numerous. The larvae of the latter builds a case of tiny pebbles about itself, and the "houses" of "caddis flies" are very abundant on submerged rocks in the swifter and clearer streams. From the preceding discussion, it appears that the native flora and fauna have been influenced powerfully by geographic conditions. The human life, treated in the following chapter, has been affected to a lesser degree, but nevertheless, greatly. CHAPTER SEVEN Hl'MAX GEOGRAPHY 1. Present conditions, p. 109: the evolution of the present conditions, cr The General Historical Geography, p. 129. (A) Tlie Population and Its Composition The population of this area, as returned by the several federal and state censuses, w^as as follows: Increase Over I'ercentase Density Year I'opulation Preceedins^' of per Census Year Increase Square Mile 1870 11,925 .16 1880 98,711 "86,786 853 ' 1.2 1885 262,560 163,849 156 3.4 1890 348,662 86,102 32.3 4.5 1895 330,975 17,687 5 4.3 1900 401,570 70.595 21.3 5.2 i9or. . 455,185 53.615 13.4 5.9 1910 583,888 128,703 28.3 7.6 The federal censusi records a large but relatively decreasing for- eign-born element in the population (17.2% in 1910, 22% in 1900, 2 6.1% in 1890). The proportion of foreign-born persons is higher in the rural than in the urban districts {11 A% vs. 16.3% in 1910). Five counties reported no foreign-born persons in 1910, fifty-one reported between 10% and 25%, and four counties more than 25%. Of the foreign-born in 1910 37% were Scandinavians (Norway, 20.8%; Sweden, 9.9%; Denmark, 6.3%), while natives of Germany made 21.4%, Russia 13.1%, Canada 6%, Austria 5.3%, England 4%, Ireland 3%, Holland 2.6%, leaving 7.i6l % for all other nationalities represented. The percentage of the population reported as native-born with one or both parents of foreign birth (37.2% in 1910, 38.9% in 1900, 3 2.4% in 1890), is nearly twice as large as the foreign-born element. 2 Of these two elements making up the so-called population of foreign origin, (54.4% of the total population in 1910, 60.9% in 1900, 57.5% in 1890), in 1910 Germany had contributed 26%, Norway 19.1%, Russia 10.4%, Sweden 7.3%, Canada 6.3%, Ireland 5.5%, Denmark 4.7%, England 4.7%, Austria 4,2%, Holland 2.1%, Scotland 1.3%, Finland 1%.- If to the large per cent (26) accredited to Germany, the Germans born in Austria and Russia and their children could be added, it is probable that the Germanic element in the state would exceed the Scandinavian (31.1%). Most of the Russians are Teutonic Mennonites and most of the Austrians are Teutonic Bohemians. The rest of the white population (42.1% in 1910, 33.1% in 1900) Is native-born of native-born parents. Of this element more than half (53.4% in 1910, 41.4% in 1900, 65% in 1890) were born in other states or territories. The seven states that contributed most, with the per cents for 1910 and for 1900 are Iowa {15.7, 9.9); Nebraska (3.8, 2.0); New York 2.1, 3.8); and Ohio (1.8. 2.3). All other states con- tributed but 11.2% in 1910, and 11.8% in 1900. •* When grouped by geographic divisions, it appears that of this native element 74.6% in 1910 and 11.1% in 1900 were born in the "West North Central States," as that division is defined in the Census reports, while the "East North Central States" supplied 17.8% and 18.6% respectively. The "Middle Atlantic Division" contributed 3.7% in 1910, and 5.8% in ^Supplement for S. Dak., pp. 589-590, (Washington, 1913) =Ibid., p. 590. =rbid., p. 591. 110 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 1900, leaving but 3.9% in 1910 and 4.5 7f in 1900 for the population contribnuted by the other divisions of the Union. The percentage of the population native to the West North Cemtral Stateis aside from Iowa has fallen off slightly, as the increase (3.5%) shown by this division is more than covered by the large increase (5.8%) from Iowa. The East North Central Division has lost but slightly (1.2%), while the represemtation sent by the Middle Atlantic and New England sections, decreased about a third, in each case, between 1900 and 1910. As the number of Indians has remained about stationary (19,137 in 1910, 20,225 in 1900 and 19,854 in 1890) they form a decreasing 'pro- portion of the entire population (5.7% in 1890, 3.3% in 1910). Negroe'S have comprised about 0.1% of the population since 1890. yy//'''''/''/'''/''/',j- eoMOB \ • ^ r - ' '//''''''/'.^tHHK^^zX new.* K*<^ ^^/^^.^ A,.^ ^ J' „ V. „.„o- I "• F'^~- -..^.Z PINE i^RlDGE I t| ., rKTOlAN" R ES!eR VAT lO N SHANNON ?'JSs¥.f..5 MTANTd PER SQUARE MILE 30. Density of Population of South Dakota, by Counties, 1010. (B) The IMstributioii of the Population Fig. 30 shows the density, and thus the distribution, of the popu- lation of South Dakota by counties in 1910. The population is most dense in the eastern, especially in the southeastern, part of the state, and least dense in the extreme northwestern county, and in the Indian reservations, present or recent, in the north-central and south-central parts of the state. Mining and irrigation support in the Black Hills region a population much denser than occurs elsewhere in the western half of the state. With the exception of parts of the reservations and of the Black Hills, the population in a general way decreases in den- sity with increased distance from the southeastern corner of the state. It was noted in earlier connections that with the exception of the Black Hills, there is a similar decrease in the amount of rainfall and in the length of the growing season with increased distance' from the south- eastern corner. In discussing the distribution of the population, it will be con- venient to treat separately the distribution of towns and of the rural population. Since more than two-thirds (66.7%) of the population live outside of towns, the latter will be discussed last. The density of the "rural" population (all persons not living in THE GEOGRAPHY OP SOUTH DAKOTA 111 places of more than S.^OO) is very similar to that indicated in Fig. 30. However, Codington, Lake, Davison, Hughes, Lawrence and Yankton counties are le/ss densely ])opulated than indicated by Fig. 3 0, due to the exclusion of the populations of the cities of Watertown, Madison, Mitchell. Pierre, Lead, and Yankton respectively. With the exception of Yankton County, a map of the rural population bv counties supports the generalization made for the distribution of the population even better than did the map (Fig. 30) of the entire population. 1. IjOcation of Dwellings Areas subject even rarely to inundation have relatively few homes. A large majority of the buildings in the valleys are on higher ground near the bases of the bluffs, in many cases on alluvial fans and piedmont slopes. Many of the latter also are occupied by "bluff roads." Most of the relatively few homes located on the flood-plains are on spots somewhat higher than their surrcundings. Similarly very few homes are located within the "lake-beds," exceedingly numerous in the glaciated ])art of the state, with the result that a large proportion are near the margins of such depressions. In the more rugged parts of the state, notably the Black Hills, the badlands, and the bluff zones along the streams, the steeper slopes were avoided in locating homes. Throughout most of the state, however, the topography is that of a gently undulating plain, and on nearly every quarter section of land there are many suitable building sites. Consequently a large majority of the homes are located within a few rods of the section line road, and near the middle of one of the sides of the "quarter." This is the most convenient location from the standpoint of access both to the highway and to all parts of the "quarter." Rural free delivery and telephones have increased the desirability of being near rather than far from the main highway. Many farms consist of more than one "quarter, "^ and in such cases the home is likely to be near the middle of the farm, which lies on both sides of the section-line road. As already noted, there are roads along most section lines, this being practicable because of the slight relief over wide areas. Since most towns of the state are laid cut in relation to section or half- section lines, and most rural homes are near such lines, it follows that the latter are the determining factor in the detailed distribution of most of the homes and most of the people. A geographic feature is responsible for the precise location of these lines. In the area east of the Missouri River, the survey of which these lines are a part, used the mouth of the St. Francis River in Arkansas as the starting point. An east-west line through the mouth was made the baseline, a north-south line (which happened to be 90° 58' west from Green- wich) was made the prime meridian.'' Had the position of the mouth of the St. Francis River been different, and because of the shifting of the Mississii)pi River it frequently has changed, the distribution of most of the homes in eastern South Dakota, as in parts of certain other north central states, would have been different than it is. The land survey of that section of South Dakota west of the Missouri River used the 4 4th parallel as its base line. 2. The Location of Town.s, The location of almost all South Dakota towns, except some in the Black Hills, is associated closely with railroads. They are spaced ■•.About 1-10 of the farms consist of one find one half "quarters," while nearly one third include two quarters, according- to the 13th Census (Sup- I)lemenl for S. Dak., j). 619). "Smith and Youiif?: History and Civil Government of South Dakota, pp. 136-135, (New York, 1904). 112 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA at intervals of about ten (eight to twelve) miles along the tracks. Railroads are sufficiently plentiful east of the Missouri so that few /ocalities are more than fifteen miles from a station, and yet few towns are less than eight miles apart. Thus towns have substantially equal advantages in regard to the size of the territory most readily acces- sible to them. The seat of local government is such a valuable asset to a town that in most cases the county seat has become the largest town of the county. Consequently, in most new counties there was great rivalry between the towns for the county seat, and the political ambitions of many towns were powerful influences in favor of small counties rather than large ones. Some of the county seats are junction points of two or more railroad lines, and such towns have outstripped less favored ones. The relative size of incorporated cities and villages is shown by the size of the circles tiootc 1,000 Q 1,000 lo 10,000^^ 10,000 to i4,oq4 ^«t^\ 'I he area and relative ^^ ^^^f /o/'i/j/icM of Sioux Falls Fig. 31. The Density of Urban Topnlation in South Dakota, Censu.s of 1910. With few exceptions, the larger cities are fifty miles or more apart. To a certain extent they serve the surrounding towns, as whole- sale centers, and sites of relatively advanced educaticnal facilities and amusements. Manufacturing is increasing rapidly in the larger cities. In regard to towns, the state is divided readily into three sections, though the boundaries are less distinct than they were before 1905: (1) The eastern half of the state; (2) the Black Hills region;" (3) the Great Plains section. (1) The, Towns of the Eastern Halt of the State. Of the ninety towns which in 1910 had a population of 500 or more, all but fourteen are east of the Missouri River. Every one of the ninety towns has a railroad, and ten of the fifteen east of the Missouri, having a popula- tionof more than 1,500, have two or more lines. Of the other five, one IS the capital, one the site of the State University, and another the site of the College of Agriculture. The other two are barelv within this group. Of the seventy-six towns under discussion, thirty-eight have but one railroad each. Of these, seven are on railroads which run north- THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 113 south and five are on diagonal lines, while twenty-six are on east-west lines, which as a class are older than the other lines. The thirty-eight remaining towns of this group have east-west and either north-south or diagonal lines. Of the seventy-six towns of the eastern group, only three, Pierre, Chamberlain and Yankton, are on the Missouri River. Vermilion for- merly was on that stream, but the shifting river is now about two miles away. Only one of these towns. Olivet, is on the Dakota River, though several (Canton, Sioux Falls, Dell Rapids, and Flandreau are on the Sioux. Yankton Sioux Falls and Vermilion were the only river towns which were of significance before the coming of railroads. Yankton was then the capital of the Territory, and although it benefitted greatly by the river in early days, it no longer does. The stream is not bridged, and thereifore partially cuts off from the city nearly half the territory which might be expected exclusively to depeiid on it. Yankton has declined with the falling off almost to nil of navigation on the Missouri, and the building of a railroad on the opposite side of the river. The growth of Vermilion has been slow for similar rea- sons. Chiefly because of the expense and difficulties in bridging the Missouri River, several east-west railroads had their termini for many years on its east bank, with the result that towns grew up there. Chamberlain and Pierre are the larger towns whose growth was stim- ulated in this way. Running Water and Le Beau are small towns (less than 500) at the termini of railroads, which indirectly owe their existence to the river. Nearly all the other towns of this part of the state owe their location to railroads. A large proportion of them were laid out along the east-west lines, as most of the east-west roads were con- structed before the main north-south lines. The location of the rail- roads, and hence, in a way, of the towns, was influenced by (1) the presence of preglacial valleys across the relatively high Western Coteau and (2) favorable points for crossing the Dakota River. The main line of the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, heading for the Black Hills, preempted the southern gap in the Coteau, between the Wessington Hills ' and the Bijou Hills. Entering Dakota at Canton, the railroad in 1880 was built across the Vermilion River Valley at its forks and across the Dakota River where a tributary stream (Fire- steel Creek) had prepared the way for a relatively easy crossing, by making a relatively easy grade from the river to the plain on the west. Elsewhere in the vicinity, and for some miles to the south, the Dakota River flows through a shallow gorge, which it would have been difficult to cross. Mitchell was located on the plain just west of this crossing, from which the line continues westward through the gap in the Coteau to the Missouri River at Chamberlain. The main east-west line of the Chicago and Northwestern Railroad entered Dakota in 1880' from the east near Brookings, swinging north to avoid a group of large lakes in Kingsbury County, and thence continuing nearly west through the next ga]) to the north in the West Coteau and down the valley of Medicine Knoll Creek to the Missouri flood-plain. It fol- lowed up this plain to a point opposite the mouth of the Teton River, where Pierre was founded. In 1907 it was continued westward to Rapid City in the Black Hills. Nearly midway between these two roughly parallel lines, which are about fifty miles apart east of the Missouri River, is the east-west line of the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, which entered Dakota near Flandreau and was extended west to the western Coteau at Wessington Springs. The location of a con- siderable section of this line is said to have been due to the relatively favorable crossing of the Dakota River by way of the small tributary Si&.— 8. 114 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA valley of Silver Creek. In a similar way the other east-west lines, with their attendant towns, were influenced in their location, even in so nearly level an area as eastern South Dakota, by physiographic fea- tures. Near the points where each of the railroad lines crossed the Sioux and Dakota rivers, town sites were laid out, and between these points stations were located ten miles or so apart along the railroads. The north-south railroad lines are next in importance. The bottom of the Sioux Valley is fertile and nearly level, and by 187 5 it had a considerable population. It was followed by the earliest north-south railroad line, completed to Sioux Falls in 187 8, and to Flandreau in 1879. Prominent railroad towns in this valley are Elk Point, Canton, Sioux Falls, Flandreau, Brookings, and Watertown. The topography of the Dakota Valley favors railroad building as well as the fertility does agriculture, and the second of the north-south lines was built, mostly in 1883, up the west side of the valley. It increased the importance of several towns already laid out on east-west lines, especially Mitchell, Woonsocket, Huron, Redfield, and Aberdeen, and it led to the establishment of many smaller towns. The territory be- tween the Sioux and Dakota valleys needing railroads, lines were built (mostly in 1886) along the low intervening divide. The towns along these lines are not so large as those in the valleys. The more prom- inent are Centerville, Parkeir, Salem, Howard, Madison, Lake Pres- ton, Bristol, and Britton. Part of the broad divide between the Dakota and Missouri val- leys is rugged, and no railroads have followed it entirely across the state. Among the towns in this region, most of them on east-west railroads, may be mentioned Tyndall, Platte, Stickney, Plankington, Wes- sington Springs, Miller, Highmore, Clark, Gettysburg, Faulkton, Ipswich, and Roscoe. ( 2 ) The Tounis of the Black Hills Regfion. The location of most of the towns in the Black Hills was determined by mines, or by passes into the more rugged sections. Custer, Keystone, Galena, Deadwood, and Lead are examples of the former class, and Edgemont, Hot Springs, Rapid City, Sturgis, Whitewood, and Spearfish of the latter, though the growth of Hot Springs was due largely to hot mineral springs. De- posits of gypsum also have been of importance there, as at Rapid City. (3) Towns of the Great Plains Section. This part of the state had no towns until the coming of railroads. Once a year the ranchers drove stock to market towns in the Black Hills, or to the railroads near the Missouri River. In many cases these towns were scores of miles from the ranches. Supplies for months were secured on such trips. The westward extension of the railroads (1906 to 1910) changed con- ditions greatly, and now there are many small railroad towns in this part of the state. Six railroads have crossed part of this region, four of them following the main divides. Formerly the valleys were inhab- ited and the divides were unoccupied, but now the divides are the more densely populated belts. Cross-line railroads have not been built, and several of these young towns are so nearly equal in size that it is quite uncertain which will attain leadership. Among the more prom- inent are Gregory, Dallas, and Winner along the White-Niobrara Divide. Presho, Murdo, and Interior along the White River Valley; Midland, Philip, and Quinn in the Teton Valley; Eagle Butte and Faith on the Moreau-Cheyenne Divide; Timber Lake and Isabel on the Moreau-Grand Divide; and McLaughlin, Mcintosh, and Lemmon on the Grand-Canon- ball Divide. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 115 (C) THE MORE IMPORTANT OOOUPATIONS 1 . Agnficulture A large majority of the people in South Dakota are engaged in agriculture. In 1910 only 13.1 - and clover mixed.. Clover alone Alfalfa Millet or Hungarian grass.. Other tame or cultivated grasses Wild, salt, or prairie g'rasses Grains cut green Coai-se forage Root forage Potatoes Sweet potatoes and yams. , Sundr- minor crops, total. Broom corn Tobacco 54,9271 8,9751 5.7251 2421 4,428| 4,3991 I 1,279| 45,6201 1,204| 2,740| 181 -I- 44.8291 301, 3,435.65611 178,88111 129,99511 2,69311 66,18311 35,62511 II 51,744|| 2,913,67611 24,40911 32,42711 2311 -II- I 3,651,024|Tons 248,927|Tons..ll 21S,3711Tons. .11 4,1941Tons. .11 153,906|Tons..! 65,844|Tons..(| 55,595|Tons..| 2,798,263lTons. .1 " ' " Tons.. Tons.. Tons. . I 28,186 77,671 67 14| 111 50,0521 7 64 641 3,441, 692|Bu 866|Bu. 'sb, 4 66 ILbs'. 860iL.bs. I 15,243,664 I 1.249.390 I 1,186,035 I 23.971 I 919.946 293,563 230,413 10,814,343 153.967 871.516 520 1,967,550 861 3,528 3.408 120 'Includes small amounts of broom corn seed, peanuts, sorghum cane seed, and sunflower seed. ^The entire acreage from which these seeds were secured is believed to be included in the acreage given elsewhere for hay and forage, flowers and plants, etc. •■'Reported in small fractions. Nearly four-fifths (78.8%) of the total value of crops in 1909 was contributed by cereals, 12.1% by hay and fodder, 5.61% by grains and seeds other than cereals, and the rest (3.5%) by minor crops, chief of which is potatoes. Corn surpasses wheat in yield though not in value, and is the chief crop in the southeastern quarter of the state (Fig. 33). 'South Dakota raises more corn than Minnesota or Michigan, and twenty-five times as 120 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Fig-. 33. The Yield of Corn in Bushels per square mile. Census of 1910. Fig. 34. The Yield of Wheat in Bushels per Square Mile, Census of 1910 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 121 much as North Dakota. She produces more than all the New England States combined, with New York, North Dakota, New Jersey, Delaware, Montana, I'tah, Washington, Oregon, California, Colorado and Wyoming."-^ Although some crops have been grown in South Dakota from early days,--' there have been notable changes in agricultural practice. In pioneer days, wheat was the chief crop.-* It still is predominant in the northeastern quarter (Fig. 34). Much recently "broken" land is sown to flax, and during the early 1880's this was an important crop in the eastern half of the area, as it has been in the wentern half during the past decade (Fig. 3.5). Fi^. 35. The Yield of Flax Seed in Bushel.s i)er Square Mile, Census of 1910. A period of two-crop farming succeeded that in which wheat was of chief importance, wheat and corn being rotated commonly in all but the northern counties, where wheat and oats, barley, or rye alternated. The dry years of the early lS9 0's encouraged still further diversification. Alfalfa and other forage crops, barley, oats, corn, flaxseed, potatoes, and fruits-"' have increased greatly in importance and cultivation is more intensive.-'' One result of this development has been an increase in the numbers of dairy cows and hogs, as well as of beef cattle. The fluctuations in the acreages of some of the ])rincipal crops of South Dakota from 1879-1913 are shown in the next table. The acreage devoted to corn is more than three and a half times as great as in 1889, both the absolute and the relative gain of 1909 over 1899 being greater than during the ])receding decade. The increase in the acreage =!" .Johnson: loc. cit., p. 63. '-''*Polk's Gazetteer of Minnesota ard DaUotP for 1S82, p. 001 records that "Dakota exnorts wheat, corn, barley, flaxseed, flour, hog-s, cattle, butter, eggs, wool and hides." -".lohnson: loc. cit., p. 64; Bailey: loc. cit., p. 7. •■"'Fruit raising- commenced aljout 1S68. There was a nursei-y at Yankton in 1S70 (Foster: loc. cit., p. 89). The Yankton County fair for 1888 exhibited !>2 varieties of locally grown ajiples (Hagerty, F. H. : Dictionary of Dakota, p. 2, (Aberdeen. 1889). 122 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA of oats has been great, but less regular. The acreage of wheat increased from 2,259,846 In 1889 to 3,984,659 in 1899, an advance of 76.3 per cent, but decreased during the last decade to 3,217,255, a decline of 19.3 per cent. The acreage of barley increased more than 1,000,000 acres during between 1889 and 1909. The acreage of flaxseed decreased be- tween 1889 and 1899, but increased much more during the next decade. Hay and forage have made important gains during each of the two decades in question and in 1910 they had an acreage more than twice as great as in 1889. Crop Yr. 1913 1909 1899 1889 18791 Corn. 2,640.000 2,037.6.5S 1,196,.'?91 75.3,309 90.8.52 Table IS. Acre.s Hnrve.steil. Oats. Wheat. Barley. 1,590.000 3,217.255 691,167 580,289 78.226 3,795,000 1,114,531 3,984,659 ,259,846 265,298 110.000 1,114,531 299,510 97.370 16,156 Flaxseed. Hay . CROP Corn 63.5 Oats 58.1 Wheat 50.9 Emmer & Spelt. ... 17.5 jBarley 87.0 Flaxseed 18.8 Hay & forage 70.7 Potatoes 57.7 6^ ^05 "^'35 <£)0 '-' O > "53 ' (U o ttJ o c >■= 0^=^ bDcS tmcd So2 OcsS t^ ci ^u > a > 2. Oh < < 65.8 12.9 10.6 70.3 27.3 Bu. $12.95 61.9 9.8 6.1 125.5 28.0 Bu. 10.29 79.1 20.3 35.3 19.3 14.6 Bu. 13.33 1.6 23.5 Bu. 10.12 34. i 7.0 2.7 272.1 20.1 Bu. 9.76 20.5 3.3 2.7 71.7 9.2 Bu. 13.50 83.9 21.7 20.3 50.2 1.6 Tons 4.44 63.0 0.3 0.3 49.1 68.8 Bu. 39.31 Of every hundred farms, 71 report hay and forage; 6 4 report corn; 58, oats; 58, potatoes; 51, wheat; 377, barley; 19, flaxseed, and 18, emmer and spelt. Except in the case of barley, the proportion of farmers reporting each of the specified crops for which complete data are given is smaller than it was ten years ago. The eight crops in- cluded in the above table cover about 77% of the improved land of the state. The most important relative increases in acreage related to barley, oats, flaxseed, and corn.32 Fruit growing for local markets is nraotl^^S ^^^^^ «^o?i'''i'' °^ extensive wheat farming similar to that formerly Cmiulr T T 7^"2^"f^ ,^^?J?.*" ths northeastern corner of our area, see No ■ h Coli oi the^f.'[i^Mi?/^ «°''^' °/ Jh?. y^"^y «f the Red River of thi .Noitn, 1..011. of the State Hist. Soc. of N. Dak., Vol. Ill, pp. 529-672, 1910. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 123 important in parts of the Black Hills having a long frostless season. Clover and Timonthy thrive at relatively high altitudes where much snow falls and are the chief forage crops there, as is alfalfa on irrigated land. Agriculture was commenced in 1876, the first season after the arrival of many prospectors in the Black Hills, in the valleys of Rapid and Spring creeks. -'3 The close relationship between crop yields and i)recipitation has been discussed in the chapter on climate and the relationship between yields and soil in the chapter on the bio-geography. Dry Farming:. Where the rainfall is not always sufficient for the growing of crops by the methods used in moist regions, considerable quantities of wheat, flax, and some other crops, are grown by the method called dry farming. Dry farming consists in pre])aring the soil so that almost all the moisture that falls is absorbed, and in hindering the sub- sequent evaporation of this moisture by a thin layer of dust on the surface, produced by repeated harrowing. Caked soil loses its water by evaporation much more rapidly tlAn dust-covered so'l In the drier parts of South Dakota there are fifteen inches of rainfall a year on the average. Since cereals require at least nine inches for their develop- ment, it is obvious that from an area watered by rainfall and melting snow alone, very little can be allowed to escape if crops are to be grown. Under natural conditions nearly all of the fifteen inches that does not run off in streams (and much more than that amount, if it were avail- able) would evaporate. Differences in the yields from near-by fields seeded to the same crops in a dry year are due to (1) the nature of the soil (whether or not it cakes after showers), (2) the thoroughness of cultivation after heavy rains (the formation of the dust layer (, or (3) the time of plant- ing, the preparation of the land, and the method of planting. IiTis'ation, In dry regions the soil in many places is very rich" in the mineral elements of plant food, as salts (rotash, nitrates, and phos- phates), accumulate near the surface, instead of being leached out and washed away by the run-off as may occur in well-drained parts of wet regions. Therefore, when the water supply is sufficient, crop yields are likely to be large in dry regions. These bounteous yields combined with the good markets for produce furnished by the mining population and the stock ranches are incentives to irrigation in parts of the state. Most of the streams leaving the Black Hills were used early for irrigation, especially near Edgemont, Rapid City, and Spearfish. The first large pro.iect was that at Bellefourche, which was developed by the Federal government and completed in 1912. A tributary named Owl Creek, having a wide vallev, was dammed and a large sunply of water diverted from the Bellefourche River is stored there. From this reservoir, 100,000 acres are irrigated. Other projects irrigated and favorably reported on by the government experts are in the Grand River Valley, in the Little Missouri Valley, and along Moreau Riveiv Lack of funds has prevented work on these projects to date. Some of the private projects are (1) the irrigation of parts of Rapid River Valley (40,000 acres between Rapid City and the Chevenne River), (2) "the Cheyenne project," involving parts of Stanley County, and (3) irrigation by pumping, (a) along the Missouri River by the use of water power, and (b) along the Little Missouri Valley by power gen- erated from the lignite deposits found in that part of the state. In s^Thirtcenth Cens5us Supplement for South Dakota, p. 625, ( Wa.shingrton, ini3): 191.3 Year Book of the Department of Asiiculture, (^Vashin^ton, 1914). ^'Tallent: loc. cit.. p. 314. 124 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 1910'-t 500 farms, 0.6% of the farms of the state, were irrigated. The irrigated area, 63,248 acres, was 4% of the improved land in farms. Less than half the area in irrigation enterprises and less than one- fourth of tho acreage of projects being developed was irrigated in 19 09. Of the 63,248 acres irrigated, GO^r were in individual or partnership enterprises, 21.5 9?- in co-operative enterprises, 10% in commercial en- terprises, and less than 9% under the United States Reclamation Ser- vice. Since the Bellefourche project was completed, the acreage under the Reclamation service alone exceeds greatly the total irrigated acreage of 1909. The total irrigated area of the state is now more than 210,000 acres. The sources of water used in 1909 were streams (75.4%), reser- voirs (21.4%), wells (2.3%), springs (0.6%), and lakes (0.37%). The chief irrigated crops in order of value of product were alfalfa; "wild, salt or wheat grass i"-'^ timothy and clover; oats; potatoes; wheat; orchard fruits; and corn. (e) Drainase. When drained, wet lands are changed from breed- ing places of mosquitoes and diseSse to agricultural land of more than average value because in lowlands as in drylands, valuable salts and organic sul)stances accumulate. As long as land not requiring drain- age could be obtained cheaply, drainage was practiced little. With the rapid rise in land values since 1900, there has been a great increase in drainage. Thousands of short, open ditches have been dug to drain "lake bods," and a few large projects for the reclaiming of bottom lands have been carried out. Large areas in the flood-plains of the Missouri (between Vermilion and Yankton) Vermilion, Sioux, and Dakota rivers have been drained. An increase in the length of the Vermilion River, produced by the shifting of the Missouri River in 1881, decreased the gradient and transporting efficiency of the former stream, and resulted in a higher water table and increased flooding of the lower pai't of the vallev. The crooked stream has- been replaced by a large, nearly straight ditch eleven miles in length, with the result that the bottom lands for a dozen miles have been drained, at an average cost of $33 per acre. ( 2 ) Milling and Quarrying; Mining and quarrying are very subordinate to agriculture both in the numbers of persons employed, and in the value of the output. The minerals secured, the distribuiion of the mines, quarries, and undeveloped mineral resources, statistics of production, and other relevant matter are treated in chapter three. At this point certain supplementary matter is presented. In 19 09''' more than 95% of the value of minerals produced (water excepted) came from "gold and silver deep mines," which employed about 95% of the 4,169 persons engaged in this industry, and took 90% of the 16,400 primary horse power used. There were ten sandstone (including quartzite) quarries, four of granite, two of gypsum, two of limestone, one of mica, one of tin, and three placer gold dredges. The value in 1910 of the produce of the minor branches of the industry was $311,477, in contrast to $6,120,970 from the "gold and silver deep mines." ( 3 ) Lumbering The Black Hills are nearly covered with western yellow or bull pine, and lumbering has been carried on there ever since the region was populated by white men. The first sawmill was brought to Custer and put in operation in February, 187 6.:*^ Deadwood had two sawmills ■•"Supplement for S. Dak.. U. S. Census, 1910, p 651 ™S<»e "The Wheat Gras.s Association," p. — . THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 125 and two planing- mills in 1882.^'^ Almost all of the lumber is consumed in the Black Hills region, as the timbering of the mine shafts requires large quantities. Two million feet of lumber are used annually in tim- bering the Homestead mine.'-' The Black Hills National Forest of almost 1,300,000 acres has been the scene of much good expeirimental work in lumbering and forest management by students of eastern schools of forestry and by government specialists. In the literature of American scientific forestry it holds almost as iirominent a position as the Black Hills region does in the literature of geology. In the valleys of the eastern part of the state there are groves of hard woods and cottonwoods, and on the uplands there are many groves which have been set out.^'^ Although the=e trees are of great value as a source of supply for posts and firewood, •n and as a i)rotection from wind and sun, very little lumbering has been carried on recently due to the small size of the groves or of the trees. Before the coming of the railroads many buildings were constructed of logs.-*- and sawmills and shingle mills were somewhat numerous, the first sawmill in the territory being erected at Sioux Falls in 1857.4'' The first machinery in Lincoln County was a shingle cutter put in operation on the Sioux River in ISfiS.-i-t There were several steam saw- mills in the Sioux and Missouri bottoms by 1870. Most of the sawmills had shingle mills attached, and lumber could be obtained at from $15.00 to $25.00 a thousand feet and shingles at $4.00 per thousand.^"' The census of 1885 recorded thirty-three sawmills in the Territcrv of Dakota, "While the census of 1910 reports but three custom mills in the state. ( 4 ) Manufacturing In South Dakota manufacturing has developed slowly, partly because of the iJroximity of the manufacturing centers at Sioux City, Iowa, and Minneapolis. For many years the manufacture of such products as flour and meal, lime, brooms, binder twine and butter has been carried on. The first grist mill in Dakota was located on the Sioux River, three miles east of Elk Point, in 186 9. There was only one in Clay County before 1870, but several were built there that year, and several in Union County. ^'^ The first flour mill in the western part of the state was erected at Deadwood in 18 81.4" In 1882 there were several flour or feed mills run by water power in this area; one at Bigstone, run by Whetstone Creek ;48 two at Canton, run by the Sioux ;4o the third largest flour mill in the world at Sioux Falls ;>" a grist mill at Olivet, driven by the Dakota River ;"^^i a feed mill near Springfield, driven by Emanuel '■"'V. S. Census: Supplement for S. Dak., pp. 676, 677, ( Washing-ton, 1913). ■•••Tallent: The Black Hills, p. 269. '^Polks Gazetteer for Minn, and Dak. for 1882, p. 952, (Detroit, 1882). 3»TalIent: loc. cit., p. 513. i^The census of 1910 recorded that 2,600 farms (3.4% of all farms in the state) reported forest products in 1909, the total value being" $257,000 in in- crease of 1427o over 1899. *'Trees were planted at various points by 1866 (Poster: loc. cit., ji. 91), and very extensively during' the early 1880's under the stimulation of "the tree claim act." •-Aim strong-, M. K. : History and Resources of Dakota, p. 33, (Yankton, 1S66J. ^-lAndreas, A. T.: Historical Atlas of Dakota, n. 136, (Chicag-o, 1884). "Poster. .1. S. : Outlines of the History of Dakota, p. 45, (Yankton, 1870). «rbid., p. 91. *»Ibirt., p. 45. ••"Andreas: loc. cit., p. 123. "Polk's Gazetteer for 1882, p. 913. "Ibid., n. 9?.2. •'■"Ibid.. J.. 1096. '•'Ibid., p. 1066. •■•-Ihid., I.. 1105. 126 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Creek; 52 and a flour mill and feed mill at Deadwood, run by Deadwood Creek. 5s in 1883 a mill was erected at Rapid City and run by Rapid Creek. •'■'■1 At the census of 18 85 there were 85 flour and grist mills in Dakota, and in 1889 81 South Dakota towns had such mills. ss in 1910 there were 91 such mills in the state, producing Zi.7% of the total value of manufactures for the state. s^ Dakota had twenty-six creameries, five broom factories, and six- teen breweries in ISST,'^'" and twenty-five South Dakota towns had cream- eries in 1889.''-- In 1910 there were ninety-five creameries in the state producing 18% of the total of manufactures'"'^ This great increase in the number of creameries between 1889 and 1910 is a manifestation of the diversification of agricultural practices already mentioned. Plants for making plaster of Paris, stucco, and pressed brick, and for preserving meat, have been put in operation more recently. Pork packing is being undertaken on a large scale. A plant costing a half million dollars was completed in Sioux Falls in 1911, and another costing a million dollars was completed there in 1913. Sioux Falls is the South Dakota city most favorably located in respect to the section of the state in which most corn and hogs are grown. The census reported in 1909, 5,226 persons engaged in manufacturing, adding $6,334,000 in value to raw material worth $11,476,000. Both these figures show an increase of nearly 46% per cent over the corresponding figures for 1904, the latter an increase' of more than 100% over those of 1899, due partly to the rapid rise in prices during that decade. The following table (20) gives the more important statistics con- cerning manufacturing in South Dakota for 1904 and 19 09.'''^ ^^Ibid., p. 952. '^'Tallent: loc. cit., p. 427. n^Hagerty: The State of South Dakota, p. 80. Aberdeen, 1889. tV,- ^- Census: Supplement for S .Dak., p. 671, (Washington, 1913). ■^'McClure, P. F. : Resources of Dakota, p. 278, Aberdeen, 1887 ^'■Hagerty: loc. cit.. p. 80. '^"'Census Supplement for S. Dak., p. 671 ""IT. S. Census: Supplement for S. Dak., p. 672. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 127 J=3 f- co-ri-O'-D t~ av o I-. 00 C-. lo V 00 LO >D cq ■V (M O lO rH I r1^ OO' 00* 00* ■ rH iH to c o coir:>cocoa5 in-* T^(^3c^ MlMrti-iTj- o tH 0<1 ~ V: 0) — 3 fc" O o ooooo OO OOO OOOOO ^ o ooooo OO ooo OOO OO c o ooooo OO OOO OOOOO ^ ■^ MOOOOUS lOO T'OiOO CONr^ CQ-* o 03 t^ t^cg^ Oi t— 05 t^MU5 CO lO t- t- CO CO 00 CO lO ^ U3 CO(M C^rHrH T-lT-l 03 —• "'■ ae- ] r-i i-i ,-i O O r-J OOO OOOOO OOO ooooo OOO ooooo 05*000 COlOrHCOlo COOl- lOC^JCOOO T}-"J"Cg MMi-^tHO 0^05050510 rHtO t> CO eg* !> (M* (M U3 rHOSO oiegco U'5 05 U5 to r-1 00CO(M00lO eg iH OO eg ■<}< toco t-o eg I- to 00 egoo COr^rH TTQOooTf eg O t--'^iOT-( rH lO M" O to 3 O i' ^s o . -^ ■;: = - C o &Irf3u-S = *S c- c Ucfl . I ••!= ~ t- 2.*C'5-: 2 3t. I. 3 CO o rt oi CO o ; (Si L. ■ 0) CO ■ CS — w v; 3 C L. C C •" - - ■ m T. . o rt •■C S • O^- ■ t- rt ■ c " :^E • ^r— :2c *'a c . (U tc • c c ..So w: bs •■=01: 01 ~ oJE-^ X 2: o rt 0.O- C i -3 P ^ " 3 =* »2 C rJ"" • X ■* ™ •'"' « -3 03 g t. ^^ ^ 1- -* <*> t. O rt t.« m 12 8 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Nearly all the manufacturing done in South Dakota represents the , attempt to supply local demands or to prepare the raw mater als pro- I duced in the region for market elsewhere. The chief industries involve I local agricultural products, the preceding table showing that about 51% of the total value of manufactured products is furnished by the milling, baking, and dairy industries, to which should be added much of the 11.2 Vr accedited to "other industries," the most important of which is i)ork packing. ( 5 ) Commerce Commerce is favored by an excess of some commodity or commodi- ties in demand elsewhere, and facilities by which the surplus profitably may be transported to and sold in the areas in which it is wanted. Sim- ilarly, commerce is favored in any region where the population, desiring various articles not supplied in sufficient abundance in the locality, has the means and opportunity to import. In most cases such means are secured by the sale of other commodities of which an excess is pro- duced. In many new areas there is importing before there is exporting, the imported goods being paid for out of wealth produced elsewhere and sent (loaned) to the area or bought by the new settlers. In years of short crops, importing is likely to decrease because of the reduced purchasing power of the population. However, in many instances im- ports are bought on credit and paid for after a favorable crop year. South Dakota is a region of specialized production; a few commod- ities are produced in amounts far in excess of local demand, while many articles, including numerous necessities, are produced only in small quan- tities or not at all. The first factors mentioned above as favoring com- merce therefore are operative. Transportation to and from the state is chiefly by railroads, there being very little transportation by water, none by electric lines (across the boundaries), and -little (for any purpose) by roads. There are (191.5) nearly 4,000 miles of railroad in the state; west of the Missouri River there are about 1,500 mi'es. In the eastern, more densely populated half of the state, except for portions of the Crow Creek Indian Reservation, there are few areas which are more than fifteen miles from a railroad station. West of the Missouri, the only areas farther than thirty-five miles from a railroad station are in southwestern Perkins County and southern Harding County. The building of railroads has been facilitated in much of the state by the topography, and by certain features of the climate. The slight precipitation is an advantage, but the persistent and often high wind, the great range in temperature with the consequent large expan- sion and contraction of rails and other metal objects, the lack of fuel and in some places of suitable water for the engines, are handicaps to railroad operation. Another and serious problem is the great fluctua- tion in the volume of produce to be handled. The amount of grain ex- ported from the zone served by a particular section of the railroad varies greatly from year to year, largely due to fluctuations in rainfall, while the "up-keep" cost of the railroad is almost as high in a year of small traffic as in one of large and profitable business. Various phases of railroad building have been considered in the earlier parts of this chai)ter. Other .phases will be treated in connection with the settlement of the area. Electric lines are little developed in South Dakota, due chiefly to the relatively small population and to lack of local capital, but in part to the general lack of fuel supplies. The only interurban line is that between Dead wood and Lead (three miles apart); it is operated by hydro-electric power. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 129 Water transportation at present is of significance chiefly to the farmers near the Missouri River in northeastern Gregory and north- western Charles Mix counties. There grain is shipped by river steamers vo the railroad at Chamberlain. Wagon roads are numerous and usually of excellent quality, owing to the long season of slight precipitation and the topography, nearly level over large areas. The absence in much of the state of rock out- crops, sandy areas and trees also contribute to the good quality of roads. Chiefly for these reasons little work has been done on the roads. In most sections improvement has been limited to a small amount of grad- ing to increase the run-off and accelerate drying after rains, and to the construction of culverts in the shallow depressions and of bridges across the few streams. In the western part of the state many of the less frequently traveled roads are little more than trails and lack bridges. The graveling or sanding of roads is discouraged in most parts of the staie by insufl^cient local supplies of these materials and by the satis- faocory character of the dirt roads during most of the year. As in the early years of settlement, the leading exports are agri- cultural commodities and gold. The chief articles are wheat, flax- seed, barley, corn, oats, cattle, hogs, sheep, horses, poultry, eggs, h'Utter. flour, packed meat, wool, and gold. The more important articles of im- port are manufactured goods, such as farm machinery, vehicles, wearing apparel, and fencing materials. II. HISTORICAL. GEOGRAPHY OR THE EVOLUTION OF PRESENT CONDITIONS (A) Introductory: The Period Before General Settlement More than a century and a half elapsed between the coming to South Dakota of its first whites and the establishment of permanent settlement in 1S59; moreover, settlement did not become extensive until after 187 8. The period before permanent settlement may be dis- cussed under three heads, (1) Exploration, (2) The Fur Trade, and (3) River Commerce, as these activities were the chief ones of that period. The discussion of these activities will not be limited to the period be- fore settlement, however, but will be continued to recent years. 1. THE GEOGRAPHY OF EXPLORATION Situated in the interior of the continent and in the general latitude of the Great Lakes, and possessing fur-bearing animals, it was natural that the first white visitors to the South Dakota region should have been French fur traders. These dauntless but practical men went out from the French posts on the Great Lakes'ii progressively farther and: farther as the fur-bearing animals nearer to the posts became depleted by the reckless methods practiced. The first white man to visit what now is South Dakota probably was Le Sueur in 1695. 'J^ It is certain that French traders regularly visited the Sioux Valley by 17 00.^3 By 1748 they had advanced as far west as the Missouri, and planted a tablet near the site of Pierre claiming the soil for the king of P'rance."* As early as 1755, 'i^ traders of the Hudson Bay Company followed up the Red River and down the Sioux and established a post near the site of "'Thwaites R G : Mackinaw, Wise. Hist. Coll., Vol. XIV, p. 1-16. '^.Johnson, ' Willis E. : South Dakota, A Republic of Friends, p. 103, IVterrc 1911 ^ •'•'Robinson; Doane: A Brief History of S. Dakota, p. 24, (N. Y., 1905). **Ibid p 215. noKerr Robt F • President's ,\nnual Address, S. Dak. Historical Society, S. D. Dep't. of Hist. Coll., Vol. v., pp. 73-74, (Pierre, 1910). Slg.— 9. 130 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Elk Point, close to the junction of the Sioux and Missouri valleys. They were not able, however, long to maintain this remote post in the enemy's territory. The fur trade necessitated wide wanderings, the trader often visit- ing many Indian villages, or accompanying bands of Indians on their hunting trips. Therefore when the first scientific exploration commenced in 1804, fur traders and trappers had become more or less familiar with the Missouri River, several of its tributaries, and even with the Black Hills. <■■'! Few of the traders had the inclination or ability to write of their travels, so the earliest well known account concerning this area records the achievements of scientific explorers. Crossed by the Missouri, the largest stream of the northern Great Plains, it was natural that this area should have been visited in the early days of water travel by parties en route for the Rockies and the Pacific Coast. The Lewis and Clark party (1804-06) was the first well known one to follow this route. Like many other and less well known parties, «" it made only brief stops at points within the area of South Dakota, but it named various physical features and perpetuated the earlier names of others, and reports of the expedition contain interesting descriptions of Indians, the character and abundance of game,Gs aiid other matters. The first party to leave the river and travel across country was the Hunt expedition, en route in 1810 to Astoria near the mouth of the Columbia. This party crossed what are now Corson, Perkins and Harding counties. «9 Such overland travel was facilitated in this region by the topography, the sparsity or absence of trees and brush, and the character of the herbaceous vegetation. Because of the abundance of nutritious grasses and naturally cured hay, parties were not hindered by lack of forage from making long trips at any season. Northeastern South Dakota drains into Hudson Bay, and was under British influence until visited in 1820 by Major Longs' expedition, which compelled the removal of English flags and s-ubstituted American for British influence. ''-'a Dr. Nicollet, delegated by the Federal government to examine the geology and resources of the Territory of Iowa, visited in 1838-39 the eastern part of the area now known as South Dakota, then a part of Iowa, and mapped and named many of the lakes. ^o His glowing de- scription of the Falls of the Sioux and of the surrounding area, com- ing to the attention of land speculators, led in 18 56 to the first at- tempt at permanent settlement in the South Dakota area.'i s'^Lewis and Clark record that a French trader named Valle claimed to have spent the w'nter of 1802-03 in the Black Hills (Robinson, Dr DeLorme, "Editorial Notes," S. D. Dept. of Hist. Coll, Vol. 1, p. 97, 1902). "'Prince Maximilian of Wied made e.xtensive studies chiefly in what now is N. Dak. in 1833. In 1832 and 1836 Catlin, the celebrated painter of In- dians, spent several weeks in the vicinity of Ft. Pierre and of Pipestone quarry (Andreas: )oc. cit., p. 90; Catlin: North American Indians). Audubon, the noted zoologisf. studied birds and mammals along the Missouri in 1842. "•^Andreas: Hist. Atlas of Dak., pp. 88-90, (Chicag-o, 1884), is a reprint of what the journal of the expedition contains concerning S. Dak. Coues Elliott: The Journal of the Lewis & Clark Expedition New York. «»Chittenden, H. M.: "Hist, of Amer. Fur Trade of the Far West, Vol. 1, pp. 182-199, (N. Y.. 1904). Irving, Washington: "Astoria" contains a full account of the trip. Bradbury and Brackenridge, two skilled scientists, ac- companied the Hunt party to the mouth of the Grand River and made many observations and collections of considerable scientific as well as general in- terest. Their accounts of their experiences are to be found in Thwaites' "Early Western Travels." (Bradbury: Travels in North America, Bracken- ridge: View of Louisiana). ""a Turner, F. J.: The Rose of the New West, p. 115 (New York) ■""Extensive extracts from Nicollet's report on this area occur in the ap- pendix of Bradford, Wm. : Notes on the Northwest, (N. Y., 1846) "Bailey, D. R.: Hist, of Minnehaha County, S. D., p. 10 (Sioux Falls, THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 131 Shortly after the discovery of gold in California, there were urgent demands for roads, and if possible railroads, to bind the Far West with the East. During the 1850s much exploration was carried on at the instigation of the government with a view to finding practicable routes for such a railroad. The first widespread exploration in the South Dakota region was done in 1855-57 under the direction of General Warren by H. V. Hayden, subsequently director of the U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories. Hayden described the geological formations of the area and studied certain types of life."^ Although he did not penetrate the Black Hills, he obtained a general idea of their structure. In part because of the Black Hills barrier,"' it soon was recognized that there were better routes for a transcontinental railroad south of the South Dakota region. For years, this area was neglected, while more practical routes to the south and north were investigated. The next exploration in this area resulted from persistent rumors74 of the presence in the Black Hills of gold in paying quantities. Al- though the Indians, in 1868, had been promised permanent possession of this area, an expedition under General Custer was sent in 187 4 from Fort Abraham Lincoln, near the site of Bismark, to explore and evaluate the Black Hills preliminary to their purchase from the Indians, should they prove to be of great value to the whites. "■''> This expedition dis- covered gold, but the scientific members were not convinced of its abundance. After a more thorough examination of the area during the following summer the presence of hundreds of prospectors and of much gold was announced."'' A great gold rush followed. The underground water supply was one of the motives back of the later, and more detailed exploration of the state. Because of the character and structure of the underlying rocks, artesian waters are readily accessible in many parts of South Dakota, and because of the climate, and in many places the soil conditions, such waters are val- uable. Therefore, the United States Geological Survey undertook the study of this resource, and assigned two geologists. Prof. J. E. Todd (already somewhat familiar with the conditions in the state because of work on the glacial deposits^^ and as State Geologist)"'^ to the east- ern half, and X. H. Darton to the Black Hills Region. In order to facilitate their work, many topographic maps were made. The geo- logic folios, water-supply papers and professional papers"'-' issued later have proved of great value to well drillers, farmers and others, and "-Warren, G. K.: Prel. Report of Exploration in Neb. and Dak., 1855-57, (Washington, 1875), contain.s several reports by Hayden; also see Hayden's "Reports of the Geological Survey of the Territories," and Coues', Elliot: "Birds of the Northwest," (Washington, 1872). "•'Although military exiJlorations under Generals Warren and Raynolds had skirted the Black Hills during 1856-59. the first authenticated penetra- tion of tliis area by whites was in 1874 by the Custer expedition. The routes taken by these and other expeditions are shown in O'Harra, C. C: A history of the Early Exploration of the Black Hills Region, Bull. 4. S. D. Sch. of Mines, Plate 1, (Rapid City, 1904). Plates 2-8 are reproductions of eaily maps of th«"a region. "■•These rumors are treatedi more fully on following pages. "=Ludlow: Report of Reconnaisance to the Black Hills in 1874, (Wash- ington, 1875.) N. H. Winchell, geologist, and G. B. Grinnell, zoologist, also submitted special reports of interest. Ludlow's report is reprinted in Rosen, I'.: Pahasapa or the Black Hills, i)p. 27.3-303. (St. Louis, 1899). ""Prof. .Jenny with Henry Newton as geologist, set out for Ft. Cheyenne Mav 29tli. 1875, under the military escort of Col. Dodge, (Tallent, A. D. : The Black Hills, p. 124, [St. Louis, 1809], Dodge, R. I.: The Black Hills, p. 10, [N. v.. 1876.]) "Todd. .T. K. : Bulletins 280 andi 298 of the U. S. Geol. Survey. '"Bulletin I, 1894, of the state survey, a general report on the g-eology of the state probably did more to make widely known the geology of the state than any other publication. Bulletins 2-4 also are chiefly or partly by Prof. Todd. See chapter on geology and physiography, p. — . '^Listed in the chapter on geology. 132 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA "Barton's "Geology and Water Resources of South Dakota"*'^ contains an excellent summary of these subjects. 2. The Geography of the Fur Trade As noted in the previous section, the fur trade was established early in this region. It was of special importance between 1808 and 1837, "1 although nearlv destroyed by the war of 1812-14 s-' Before 1808 bison were so numerous east and south of the South Dakota area that the fur trade of the "Sioux Country" was chiefly in the more val- uable, less bulky, and more easily transported furs of the beaver, mink, and otter. These' animals probably were originally less numerous here than in the more humid areas to the east, but in the latter they were killed off so rapidly that by 1800 there were more in parts of the South Dakota area than in many sections farther east. Furthermore, furs obtained from Dakota we„-> -,->'--. --^..e^M^. '"-""S^j/'-j!,; ■""■"""""* °™-"«» <•' «'« Great W.3.. „ap ,„, „„. '"""LlfSi'- war, °°" "'"""'■ "' "'""■ ""'' '''"'■ ""■ "*'■ -■ ■«• (I--' M^ssoun^Hiver vol. l/p.T3t (New^Xr^?^^^^ Navigation on the ■^ibid:; p.- 18S THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 135 River and crossed souSern o'akota C '"llT ^^^^^^.^^l the Missouri very little. The rush to these eoldfi'.iH- '"^"^"««d its development steamers that ascended the nnnP,Mi ■ -^ '"^fleeted in the number of 19 steamers Passef ?^anktonZ'\he wTun n' '^^'^ ''''''■ ^^ l^^? 1862, 13; in 1863 IS- in iq7^ on ^ "P the river; in 1861, 11- in there we;e on y 4 arrival, nf tl ^^i ^°^ ^" ^^^^' ^^- Prior to 1864 navigation oi^^^the SJouH ^Ri^e?;" r^S^s' IZ' fsT'^'l'. ^'^ ''^'^ ^' arrivals. There was a sharp decline in tL 1867 there were 70 1867.100 when the Union Pacific R^iiv^ ^^ number of arrivals after In 1865, 1.000 passengers 0^00 fon^ nf '^Pf'?^^!?^^ the gold field; mills were sent to For? Benton in 1867 40 "|r^'^'"^^''- ^"^^ ^^ ^"^^tz 12.000 tons of freight had passed SionvPitv f*f "^^^.^ carrying more than 71 steamers, averaging 260 tons each .n ^^ •^""". '''■'"' I" 1867. of cargo, left St. Louis for Fort Benton .nrltL ^^''^>'^"f,. 16.655 tons Steamboat navigation nn thJ vf • ^•' *^^^ "PJ'^'" Missouri. ion in the Indian War ^ whi h es^ci^nV'?^^^^ °' ^^"^* importance Plies and men for ihe severaT torti n nn^ ?h ^t^- ^'^"'"^ 1862-77. Sup- veyed chieflv by steamer^ Varinn. i.^ ^^^ Missouri River were con- which the most noSd i^'-the oTe of Ts?6'%^f ^f^^ft the Indians, of sacred.io. depended on steamboat Vring t'e decaSe mo'l 8^0^ ."^^^- City was the great shipnine nninf fnr n-,o i^ne aecade 1870-1880 Sioux though after 1872. Xn the Northern P. oiZ'V^-/*' .^°'^' "P the river, much freight started up river from the l^ttevni^!^! '''^^ '^^'^"^ Bismark. City.105 ^ ^^ "°"^ ^"® latter place instead of from Sioux Of mosrof'tr rt?ii;;^^e\ticuitu;arsit;i? ^^r^^^^ °" ^'- -"^---t after the coming of the raHroads had c^S^"*^ was nof extensive until traffic. Sioux City was reached in 186 8 hJ ^ ^^.^^^l ^^""''^ ^^ ^^^^^ (Council Bluffs) and fronrthe east by two iLe^s if lT7^S""V "^^ and Bismark were reached in 1872 Yankton in ^ 87 3 n VermiliomoT Pierre in 1880. los Transportation nn fi,o\^" ^' Chamberlain and and expensive, and Dakota anners Pn„n'''°7' "^'^^^ ^^^ uncertain profitably in tAe settled sections othPP.it "°* T'^^^ *^^"' P^^^^^^ farmers situated neaer ?o those areas No ™°""' '" competition with from Yankton County until 18 73 whpn tL^ f '''f' shipped eastward Yankton.i-r, '^ '""H 18/., when the railroad was completed to coj^sKierable produce fr„j;'"tL'sar llt^ZlT. lZTt.1 IST^?^^ ni, (St. Paul. 1901); ^ l^mpire Builders of the Groat West, pp. 38 £Tr^a"['ed'rn SiVai?" I^'tIK^ Th^ Blaclf 'i^illt'^').?*''?^- ^'"'^ «--• Vol.2. >»=Chittenden: loc. cit., Vol II n 419 ^"^' ^^t" Louis. 1889). -ltl^tS^n':'l^c."ci?^- ^ R— '^^'of Dakota, p. 43, (Yankton. 1870). >™rTrio"'''''''^' ^"^' °' ^^'^'^°*^' ^- 153, (Chicago. 1884). ""Foster: loc. cit.. p. 68 Coll.. Vol. I. pp. 383. 415. 1902 t lerre, fa. D. Dept. of Hist. "-Foster: loc. cit., p. 68 "^Batchelder: loc. cit., pp. 30-31 136 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Although the steamers carried but little produce down-river from the Dakota area, they brought considerable quantities of supplies from the east. The first frame building at Yankton is said to have been brought from St. Louis in a steamer. m In 1870, after Sioux City had been reached by railroads, there was a steamer plying regularly between that place and Yankton which furnished "the cheapest and most expeli- tious means of transporting freight to Yankton. "n"' With its help, aver- age freight charges on boxed goods from Chicago to Yankton were only two dollars per hundred i)0unds in 1870. n'* Thus steamboat traffic had some influence on the agricultural development of the area under con- sideration. Steamers also influenced the development of certain towns, especially Yankton. "The traffic on the Missouri River, which was for years an important factor in Yankton's prosperity, as at one time as many as forty steamers did business at Yankton, at this time [1883] is very small. "11" Ileason.s for the Slight Development of River Commerce. Steamboat traffic on the Missouri River had little influence on the industrial develop- ment of South Dakota, partly because of certain characteristics of the river. It is aggrading, swift, crooked, shifting, subject to marked fluc- tuations in volume and often very shallow at many points, obstructed by many sandbars, and frozen over for a considerable portion of the year. "The average velocity of its current has been estimated at three miles an hour, and this is greatly increased during the flood season in con- tracted portions of the river, frequently reaching five or six miles per hour, and forcing the most powerful steamers to use the towing lines. us As to fluctuations in volume: Although river steamers of three hundred tons burden, 11'' having a draft of about four feet when loaded, i-" normally can navigate the river during the open season to the mouth of the Yel- lowstone, in the fall of 1862 the water was so low that an ordinary steamer could not reach Yankton, and had to .unload its cargo five miles below, near the mouth of the Dakota River. i-i At other times the bot- toms between Yankton and Sioux City are flooded to a width of ten miles in places, as in 1862,i^- 1881,i-3 and in 19 07, and lesser floods are ex- pected each year. The magnitude and rapidity of the changes of channel are remarkable: "In many cases there is a shifting of two or three hun- dred yards in a few weeks into the bottom lands.' i^i The navigation of this section of the river usually is prevented for more than four months annually by ice.i-^ Therefore the steamboats could not successfully compete with the railroads, for several reasons which may be summarized as follows: ( 1 ) While the railroads can operate all the year, the river is closed by ice for a third of the year, when, therefore, the railroads have a monopoly. (2) As slow as was early rail transportation, it was far more rapil than that furnished by boats on the Missouri, which often could make but small progress against the current, and were in constant danger of '"Holly, F. C: Our Heritage from the Dakotas, p. 84, (Chicag-o, 1890). "'^Foster: loc. cit., p. 54. ""Ibid., p 87. "■Andreas: loc. cit., p. 131. .n.v,"',¥°'^®^^' °-^"^^'- (Capt. of Engineers): Ex. Doc. House of Rep. 3rd Sess. 40th Congress, Cong. Serie.s 1368, p. 622. Reprinted in the Collections of N. Dak. Hist. Soc. Vol. I, p. 380, 1906. ""Andreas: loc. cit., p. 85. '-"McClure: loc. cit., p. 73. '-'Andreas: loc. cit.. p. 130. Many cicres of crops were destroyed by this '--Ibid., p. 130. The towns of Yankton and Vermilion were severely dam- aged, the property loss being set at $50,000 and $142,000 respectively. Ten persons lost their lives. '=3Ibid., p. 133. '^Howell: loc. cit., p. 628 '^''Andreas: loc. cit., p. 85.' THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 13 7 running aground on bars. Because of the frequeincy of such occurrences boats could not approximately maintain a schedule. (3) The shallow- ness of the river at many points made necessary boats of small capacity, while the strength of the current required a relatively powerful engine with corresponding fuel supply. This inflexibility is in contrast to trains of lengths varying with the needs. (4) The losses involved in steam- boat navigation were much greater tlian those to which rail transportation is subject. The muddy water, of necessity used by the boats, caused many boilers to explode; snags were numerous and severely damaged many boats; others, in running with the current, were so thoroughly grounded on bars as to be removable only at so great an expense that in many cases they were abandoned until a rise in the river, or per- manently. (5) The heavy expenses resulting in part from the high wages secured by the pilots, who must be highly skilled, and the heavy charges demanded by insurance companies, were severe handicaps to river com- merce. (GO the ever-shifting channel, together with banks of silt, made the problem of wharfage a serious one in most places. The approach to the docking place of the boats was, in many cases,, made very difficult by bayous, sand, "blow-outs," "gumbo," or steep slopes. The approach to railroad depots in nearly every case is enormously easier. i-" For the foregoing reasons, steamboats now have little significance on the xMissouri. In 19 0 6 there were only ten steamboats on the Missouri River above Sioux City, and most of these were above Bismark.127 The only steamboat traffic of moment in South Dakota is the faking of grain from various points in the northern parts of Charles Mix and Gregory counties to the railroad at Chamberlain, which has been favored for decades in possessing a fairly stable water front,, the best for three or four hundred miles. 128 (B) THE SETTLEMENT OF THE STATE 1. Causes for the Late Settlement of tliis Area The first attempt at permanent settlement was made in 1856 near the falls of the Sioux. From 18.57 to 1862 many homes were established in the Sioux Valley, but all were abandoned between 186 3 and 1865 on account of the Indian scare and a permanent settlement was not estab- lished until July, 1859, at Yankton. The population of Southern Dakota probably did not exceed 2,000 in 1865 or 12,000 in 1870, by which date Iowa had more than a million people (1,115,000), and in 1878 it prob- ably was less than 60,000. The causes for the delayed settlement of this area are in part geographic: (1) As long as lands more desirable in respect to location, climate, or resources were available, there was little demand for lands in the area of South Dakota. (2) The government followed the policy of not attempting to secure title to Indian lands until the demand for them was urgent. As a result, the Indians claimed all of what now is South Dakota until 1851 when a small strip east of the Sioux River was ceded. The next tract obtained from the Indians, consisting of much of eastern South Dakota, was declared open to settle- ment in July, 1859. The next large tract included the Black Hills, and was opened in 1877; the next was opened in 1889 (Fig. 36.) Until the Federal government obtained title to the land, it attempted, with a good deal of success, to keep would-be-settlers out. (3) Until the railroad net was fairly dense, transportation to distant markets was very expensive isopor a discussion of causes for the decline of water transportation see Barrows, Harlan H. : The Geog. of the Middle Illinois Valley, Bull. 15. 111. Geol. Surv., pp. 100-102. (Urbana, 1910); Chittenden: Hist, of the Early Steamboat Navigation of the Mis.suuri KiviT, Vol. II, Chap. 39. (New York, 1904). i^Dixon: loc. cit., p. 55. i28polk's Gazetteer of Minn, and Dak. for 1882, p. 941. 138 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Fig. -36. Map Showing- the Progressive Reduction of Indian Reservations in South Dakota. Fig. 37. Historical Map of South Dakota. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 139 from most of the areas, there being only one s-tream navigable by steam- boats and that, for various reasons noted, quite unsatisfactory. (4) Droughts and the visitations of devastating hords of grasshoppers, gave the region a bad reputation in some quarters and at some periods. (5) The Kansas-Nebraska bill accelerated the settlement of those areas, especially Kansas, and tended to retard the settlement of other sections of the frontier. !-'•' (2) THE SETTLEMENT BEFORE 1876 In 1856, the white population of the area now included in South Dakota appears to have consisted chiefly of a few traders and trappers, most of them of French extraction, i-'" of whom a majority had Indian wives. i-'i There also were some soldiers, and the steamers on the Mis- souri River carried a few transients. The first white woman to visit this area, the wife of a steamboat captain, came in 1847.i'- In 1851 the Santee Sioux Indians, by the Treaty of Traverse de Sioux, .1-3 relintiuished their lands situated tc the east of the Big Sioux River (Fig. 36) and settlement was made legal in a small area, near Sioux Falls, but within the present confines of South Dakota. In 1856 a party from Dubuque, Iowa, attempted to found a settlement at the falls of the Sioux, but was driven away by Indians. It returned the follow- ing summer. Early in 1857 the government erected Fort Randall on the Missouri River (in what is now Gregory County) and undertook to keep the Indians out of deeded territory and to prevent settlers from occupying lands still in the reservation. !••* (a) The IJeginnings of Settlement. In May, 185 7, a party of land speculators from St. Paul, Minnesota, laid out four towns in the Big Sioux Valley. I'"' Two of them (Sioux Falls and Flandreau) still exist, although they were abandoned from 1862 to 1865 because of the fear of Indians, while Medary was burned and permanently deserted in July, 1856,1-'; as was Emineza. The falls of the Sioux, enthusiastically described by Nicollet, determined the location of the town of Sioux Falls, i3' while the Big Bend of the Sioux River and a trading ])ost located there in 182 2 determined the location of Flandreau I'S During 1858 there was considerable immigration to the Sioux Falls region, the first woman settler coming in the summer and the first family with children in the fall.i''' That year the Yankton Sioux In- dians sold for .'^1,600,0001^" most of the tract between the Sioux and Missouri rivers (Fig. 36). On July 10th, 1859, the Indians were removed from this area and the reservation was declared opened. Some hun- dreds of prospective settlers, who had encamped on the Nebraska side of the Missouri River awaiting the opening, immediately crossed over and within the next few weeks the towns of Yankton, Meckling, and Vermilion were laid out. Elk Point was founded shortly afterm These towns were all near the Missouri River, the chief highway at that time: Yank- i^Hale, E. E.: Kanzas & Nebraska, p. 234, (Boston, 1854). i3» Andreas, T. A.: Historical Atlas of Dak., p. 135, (Chicago, 1884). "iRobinson, Doane: A Brief Historv of S. Dak., p. 216, (New York, 1905). i^Ibid.. p. 218. '•■"Foster, J. S. : Outline of Hist, of Dak. Terr., p. 7, (Yankton, 1870). J»*Blackburn, W. M.: Historical Sketch of N. & S. Dak., S. Dak. Dept. of Hist. Coll., Vol. 1, p. 47, 1902; Robinson, Dr. De Lorme: Editorial Notes on above sketch. Ibid., p. 116. '•'^Armstrong, M. K. : Early Empire Builders of the Great West, p. 27, (St. Paul, 1901). i3«Andreas: loc. cit., p. 96. '■■"Bailey: loc. cit., p. 216. i3«Robinson, De L. : loc. cit.. p. 728. '^•Andreas: loc. cit., p. 96. ""Robinson, Doane: loc. cit., p. 219. "'Foster: loc. cit., pp. 8. 46. 140 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA ton near the mouth of the Dakota River on a low terrace being eroded by the Missouri River and hence affording fairly good wharfage; Meckling| near the river in a large area of unforested plain between Vermilion and Yankton; Vermilion at the foot of the bluffs at the mouth of the Vermilion River: and Elk Point on the flood-plain at the junction of I the Sioux and Missouri valleys, and not far from those streams. Dur- ing isr)9, ISeo, and 1861 there were good crops and rather rapid settlement n- As a result, there was considerable agitation for terri- torial government, this area having been left without government wheia Minnesota was admitted in 1S58. Late in 1861 Dakota Territory was created bv act of Congress, and in 1862 Yankton was selected by the first governor as the capital. A census taken in June, 18 62, just after the organization of the territory, revealed a population of .-,402,i*s distributed as follows; Sioux Falls, 40; Clay and Union counties, 69 6; Yankton County, 287; Bonhomme County, 163 ;m and the balance chiefly in the Red River Valley in what is now North Dakota. Four counties were organized in 18 62, Union. Clay, Yankton, and Bonhomme, all on the eastern border of the Territory. Two additional counties were organized before 1871 in the Sioux Vallev: Lincoln County (1867), just north of Union and Clay counties, and Minnehaha County (1868), containing Sioux Falls, just north of Lincoln County. In 1862 Congress i)assed the Homestead Act. This statute, later of great significance in the settlement of the state, had little immediate effect because of the competition of lands farther east, the lack of cheap transportation facilities between this area and the settled port- tions to the east, and especially the fear of Indian uprisings. (b) Hard Times. In August, 1862, two citizens were murdered by Indians near Sioux Falls, i + '' Closely following massacres in Iowa and Minnesota in which several hundred whites were killed, ni^ pro- duced a panic among the frontier settlers of Dakota. "So many re- turned to the Eastern states, that the area was almost depopulated."!^' More than three-fourths of the settlers fled, according to one writer, i^s and another stated that only three hundred remained in the area.i^s The Sioux Valley was entirely deserted from September, 1862, until May, 1865, when Fort Dakota was erected at Sioux Falls. It was kept well manned for four years. i"-" It was net until 1866 that farmers returned to the Sioux Valley. I'l In Bonhomme, the westernmost county, the settlements began in 1860, and comprising 200 persons in Septem- ber, 1862, were deserted; eight years later the population of the county was only 500.i"52 The panic stricken settlers who did not leave the territory gathered in a stockade at Yankton. i^- Experiencing no more trouble from the Indians that fall or winter, a few returned to Ver- milion, Elk Point, or .Jeffeirson and built stockades at those points. i'>* "In the spring and summer of 1863 more settlers were murdered in Dakota than before or since. "i"'" In 1864 the Indians continued espe- "^Foster: loc. cit., p 10. i*3Armstrongr: loc. cit., p. 32. ^"Andreas: loc. cit., p. 96. i«Foster: loc. cit., p. 13- Andreas: loc cit p. 162. i^Heston: Hist. & Activities of the People of Dakota, Encyl. Americana. "'Blackburn, W. M.: Hist. Sketch of Dak., S. D. Dept. of Hist. Coll., Vol. I, p. 52. "".Vndreas: loc. cit., p. 99. '"Arm.'Jtrong-: Karly Empire Builders, loc cit., p. 35. i=«Blackburn: loc. cit., p. 52; Bailey: Hist, of Minnehaha County, p. 31. '"Ibid., p. 67; Foster: loc. cit., p. 76. "=Foster: loc. cit.. p. 67. '^An cl rGtXS i loc cit d 99 iMRobinson. D.': Outlines of S. Dak. Hist., S. D. Dept. of Hist Coll., Vol. II, p. 75, 1904. isoFoster: loc. cit., p. 17. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 141 cially troublesome, there was a severe drought and a devastating visit of grasshoppers, and as a result most of thei few settlers left Dakota i"'" For these reasons very little was done from 18fi2 to 18(10 "toward ex- tending the settlements or following agricultural pursuits, excei)t the raising of stock," for which there was a good market at the posts and agencies. i'^ The following data illustrate the stagnation during this period: The population of the Sioux Valley in 1S68 was said to have been less than it was ten years previous. i'-' The population of Lincoln County on Jan. 1st. 1868, was placed at 33 persons;i'''J two and a half years later it had 712. Although Elk Point was incorporated in 1862, it first had a store in 1866. 1'^i The Indian troubles in this section ended in 1865i«2 when Fort Da- kota was erected at Sioux Falls, i"- but the influx of settlers continued to be slow for a time, partly because of the very unfavorable reputation given the area as a result of the drought and grasshoppers of 1864. The worst effects of these blights had been witnessed by several regi- ments of Iowa volunteers, members of the second expedition against the Indians. i''J The discouraged settlers doubtless circulated unfavorable reports also. (c) The Fii'st Boom. With the close of the Civil War and the growth of a feeling of security from the Indians, stimulated by forts and several military expenditions, there was increased interest in the frontier. Interest in the South Dakota section develoi)ed for the most part after 186 8, at which date Sioux City was connected with the East by rail.i'''' With 1869 what may be called the First Dakota Boom set in. It lasted until 1873, and was blasted by the devastations of grass- hoppers in that year and the year following. The boom of 1869-73 was duo to (1) good crops in this area, (2) the approach or arrival of rail- roads with a resulting great improvement in transportation facilities, and (3) the rapid occupation of lands in Iowa. The following quotations suggest the influence of good crops on the settlement: "The year 186 7 was a prosperous one for Dakota. * * * crops were generally good."!'''' "The rush of immigration during 1868 was so great that at the close of the year the population of the Territory was estimated at 12,0()0."i<'' "The crop of 1868 had be«3n uniformly good, and the citizens of the territory in writing to their eastern friends had given such glowing descriptions of the country that early in the spring of 1869 evidence was given of an unusually large accession to the popu- lation of Dakota by immigration."!"^ Previous to 1869 no organized effort, except that of the New York Colony, had been made to bring settlers to Dakota. In July, 1869, a '"'Armstrong-, M. K. : Hi.st. and Resources of Dak., p. 47, (Yankton, 1868). '^'Poster: loc. cit., p. 14. "»Ibid.. p. 68. >6»Andrea^: loc. cit., p. 96. »8»Andreas: loc. cit., p. 136. ""Census of 1870. "iPolk's Gazetteer for 1881: loc. cit., (Detroit. 1881). '"^Foster: loc. cit., p. 26. "'^Blackburn: loc. cit., p. 52. '"Foster: loc. cit., p. 23. "^^Chicago was connected by rail with the Atlantic Coast in 1853. The Mississippi Kiver west of Chicago was reached by 1855. Sioux City, was connected by rail \vith Chicago in 1868 bv a line up of the Missouri Valley from Council Bluffs, and in 1870 by two lines directly across the state. Sioux City became the terminus of the railroad because it was favorably located on the outside of a great bend of the Missouri River on well- drained ground and on the east side of the Big Sioux River, whicli was not bridged easilv, and was not crossed until 1872. i6«Foster: loc. cit., p. 33. '"Andreas: loc. cit., p. 100. ""Foster: loc. cit.. p. 40. 142 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Bohemian colony was organized and several hundred settlers came.i^O' Large groups of Norwegians came during the same year. It is said that 800 of them left Sioux City for Dakota on June 3, 1869. i«n The New York Colony was organized in Syracuse, New York, in 1863, prin- cipally through the efforts of Jas. S. Poster and Chas. Van Epps Mr Foster was se^nt west in August, 1863, and after visiting Iowa, Dakota- Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri, he returned and reported in favor ofi Dakota. A special train was chartered to Marshalltown, Iowa, the terminus of the line and the railroad station nearest to Dakota. Adult members of the association were furnished tickets for the trip for $1.">.00, the freight was carried the entire distance for $2.05 per hun- dred pounds. Of the one hundred families which started from New York, forty settled in Iowa. Many of the sixty families which settled in Dakota became disheartened by the drought and grasshoppers of the first summer, and left. Six years later, in 1870, only thirty families remained. They were distributed along the Missouri Valley mostly near Yankton, I'l In 1873, a colony of Russian Mennonites settled in Bonhomme County. 1-2 Groups of acquainted families had made "colony settlements" at earlier dates. For instance, a "colony" of Norwegians from Man- kato, Minnesota, settled in Bonhomme County in 1860, it: and more than one hundred families of Scotch from Canada settled near Scotland in the same county during 1872-74.174 The influx of settlers was promoted in this period not only by land agents, colony organizers, and railroads, but by local imi)rovements in transportation facilities. Ferries had been established at various points. One across the Dakota River on the route between Sioux City and Fort Randall was installed for the special benefit of the troops i^.:. Early- settlers of several counties, including Union, Clay, and Yankton also kept ferries on the larger streams along the route between Sioux City and Yankton. 1 re; These streams wei-e bridged bv government appro- jjriation in 186 8, a notable improvement. i" Shortly after the arrival of the railroad in Sioux City, a daily stage to Yankton was established and in the same season Sioux Falls and Yankton were united by a mail stage. iTJ- T Transportation was facilitated somewhat bv three government roads, in 18b;j Congress had appropriated $85,000 for the opening of three wagrn roads through Dakota Territory to the distant mines in the S^?.!!5l;<. 2":'^r,^'^.^.^^^'^^^. ^^^^ Missouri Valley from Sioux City to the to its thern is the I Mouth of the Cheyenne River: another was built up the Cheyenne i forks;i.!' a third, the Nobles road, followed approximately the sou boundaries of Brookings and Kingsbury counties to what now is ...^ northwestern corner of Sanborn County, and thence southwestward to the big bend of the Missouri River.i^o Xong ^f these roads reached the Rocky Mountains. nonnL°tii^ '^ /^^i ^^l^ °^ ^^^'""^^ Territory now in South Dakota had a population of 11,.<6.t.i Before the beginning of the Great Boom ■'■"Sioux City Times, June 3, 18 69. ^'"Foster: loc. cit., p. 42 i-iFoster: loc. cit. pp. 19-21. "-Andreas: loc. cit., p 146 "sibid.. p. i:i6. "*Ibid., p. 146. ^"Ibid., p. 146. ^■"Armstrong: Hist, of Dak., p. 35. '"Fester: loc. cit.. p. 35 ^"8Ibid., p. 36. ingtZ'\%13')!' ^^"""^ °^ '""^ U.°^S.7'Ab^s^t-ral?'-|o"J- S. Dak., p. 568, (Wash- THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 14 3 (1878-8 6) only two small parts of the area had a population of two or more per square mile. The southeastern corner (the lower Missouri and the lower Sioux valleys) had this density after 18 69, dnd the Black Hills after 1876. The population in the former section was found chiefly on the flood-plains, with a large majority in the Missouri Valley. This suggests the significance of the Missouri River as a waterway. The relative proximity to more densely populated areas in the east and south was also of importance. Between 1868 and 1872, when a railroad was extended into Dakota, Sioux City, Iowa, served as a market for such pro- duce as was shipped eastward out of the region, and, as the depot from which imports were received. Sioux City had a population of 4,000 in 1870.1*- The population of the Dakota counties in 1870 reflects these influences. Union County, in the southeastern corner of the Territory and in part within four miles of Sioux City, had a population of 3,507; Lincoln, the county next to the north and more distant from both rail- road and navigable river, had a population of 712; while .Minnehaha. the next county to the north and on the frontier of settlement, had only 355. Clay County, to the west of Union, but on the Missouri River, had a ])opulation of 2,621 ; the next county, containing the capital, hid 2,097; while Bonhomme County, the next up the valley and on that frontier, had only 6 08. ( 3 ) The (iold of tlie lilack Hills and Its IiiHueiico on Settlement The presence of gold in the Black Hills was rumored more than three decades before its discovery in 1874. Gold probably was discov- ered in 1834 by a party all but one of whom were killed by the Indians. This man left a tablet telling of the fate of his comrades, but was not heard of thereafter. Nuggets of gold said to have been taken from this party were given to traders and to Father DeSmet soon after, and Indian traditions support the legend on the tablet. is- Several publications is- sued before 1874 treating of the resources of Dakota mention the gold of the Black Hills as one of the inducements to settle in Dakota. Even before the existence of gold in the Black Hills was established with cer- tainty these reports had some influence on settlement. In 187 2 a private expedition was prevented by a military force from exploring the Hills. i** and settled in the eastern half of the territory. is'^ The expedition of 1874 under General Custer, which discovered gold, was the first to give a written account of the interior of the Black Hills. The Black Hills region belonged to the Indians until Feb. 2 8, 1877, although they are said never to have frequented the Hills proper, i'"'- and until nearly that date they made many efforts to keej) white civil- ians out.i^" Until November, 187 5, the tjnited States army also en- deavored to prevent trespassing on this Indian reservation. iss The goods of many offenders were burned, and the leaders of a number of expeditions were imprisoned. i^'i However, the lure of gold was so power- ful that in spite of military opposition, Indian resistance, and many natural hardships, there were many who attempted to acquire wealth in the supposed marvellously rich gold-field guarded so zealously. The first party of prospectors that reached the vicinity of the place where is^'Foster: loc. cit.. p. 104. issTallent, A. D. : The Black Hills, p. jO, (St. Louis, 1899). i»«Ibid., p. 5. An expedition had been organized in 1868 to explore the Hills but it was broken up by the government, Fostor, J. S.: Outlines of Hist, of Dak., p. 35, (Yankton, 1870). i^Tallent: loc. cit., p. 193. i8"Ibid , p. 111. is'Ibid.. pp. 296-808. Even as early as 1857 they zealously guarded this :region and prevented an expedition under General Warren from penetrating the Hill.-; Ibid'., p. 4. i«Ibid., p. 7. The treaty of 1868 had guaranteed this region to the Indians for all time. i»»Ibd., pp. 86, 130-138. 144 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA gold was first found, arrived from Sioux City, December 2 4, 1874, after a seventy-eight day journey. i^'o At present the trip can be made by train in little more than fourteen hours. Two members of this first party returned to civilization with some gold late in February, 187 5, and spread the "gold fever. "i-'i During thei summer of 187 5 there was a considerable influx of pros- pectors and the government had the area re-examined by scientists, enough gold and other minerals were foundi-'- to warrant the purchase of this area from the Indians, but they refused to consider its sale until all the prospectors had left. General Crook, in charge of the troops engaged in attempting to keep out intruders, invited the prospectors to assemble, and after explaining to them the demands of the Indians, persuaded nearly all of them to leave the region for the time being. is^ When the conference with the Indians proved unsuccessful, almost all official hindrance ceased, i-'^ and soon there was a rush of settlers. Eleven thousand persons arrived between November, 1875, and March 1st, 187(3.1:''' Most of the new arrivals flocked to Custer, laid out near the original discovery, which became a city of at least 6,000 persons and 1,400 buildings by the latter date.iou The scarcity of gold, the insufficiency of water for washing the gravel, the appropriation of more promising localities in the southern Hills, and the partial exhaustion of the placers there, encouraged wide- spread prospecting with the result that gold was discovered elsewhere. In June, 1876, Deadwood Gulch, seventy-five miles north of Custer, was found to contain rich placers, and there was a rush to that locality. lo^ Custer was almost deserted, and remained an insignificant place for nearly a decade.i-''^ Deadwood. in the valley of that name, promptly became a city of importance, acquiring a population of 7,000 almost immediately. After the discovery of large bodies of ore in the locality, it took on a more permanent character. lo" Other cities grew up near various deep- mines; Lead, by far the largest city in the Black Hills, is an example. The settlement of other parts of the area under consideration was affected in various ways by the presence of gold in the Black Hills. This was true after 1878 as well as before, and the following discussion is not limited to the earlier years. ( 1 ) The most direct effect of the gold was that the miners, the speculators, and most of the people sup- ported directly or indirectly by them, furnished a market for various commodities. In response to the high pricess"" which then prevailed in the mining towns, which were separated from railroads by many miles of poor trails infested with robbers and Indians, farming and stock rais- . >»"Ibid., pp. 20-60. An account of this trip by the authoress, one of the memDers of the party. '"■Ibid., p. .S6. "'-Uosen. P.: Pahasapa or the Black Hills, pp. 597-611, is a reprint of the report rendered the governmeint by Jenny, the leader of the party. '"■■'Tallent: loc. cit., p. 132. '»'Ibld., p. 139. ii^Ibid., p. 140. i«"Ibid., p. 140. Ipli?^"*-'^' ^- C.: Our Legacy from the Dakotas, p. 100, (Chicago, 1890). iDsphree years after being- a city of from "6,000-10,000" it had fewer than 50 inhabitants; Polk's Gazetteer for 1882, loc. cit., p 950 '°*Deadwood situated in what is almost a canyon, was nearly demolished by flood in 18(9, but was promptly rebuilt. It was almost destroyed in 1883 by fire, and never recovered first place in population, which Lead has held since. It still IS the commeroal center of the Hills 2»«A meal cost seventy-five cents to a dollar in Deadwood in 1876 and potatoes twelve to fifteen cents, per pound (Curley, E. A.: The True History ^i.'h.^r,?'^?^ *^'",^' P; ^^' tChicagc, 1876]). Flour sold as high as $60.00 ^fos^^Af-'^*^*^ pounds. A dozen cats sold at $10.00 apiece, (Tallent: loc. cit., p. serviced "(Ibfd ^"p 353) "^'^^ received from $5.00 to $7.00 per day for tlielr THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 145 ing in the region both reached significant proportions before the area was purchased from the Indians. '-'^i The more favorably located farmers in the eastern part of the Territory also for several years sold produce to this population, and freighted large quantities cf supplies from the railroad termini to the Black Hills during the period 1880-85. From 1876 until 1880, in which year Chamberlain, Pierre and Dickinson (North Dakota)-"- were reached by rail, the chief freight and stage lines had their railroad termini at Cheyenne,-"' or at Bismark, but from 1880 until 1885, when a railroad approached the Hills from the south, Pierre was the most important shipping point thence.-"* In 1883 upwards of 26,000,000 pounds of freight and 5,000 passengers were carried between Pierre and the Black Hills, by the two chief transportation companies-""' by means of twenty- four four-horse coaches (run ten per week each way), 1,4 00 wagons, more than 3,000 oxen, 850 mules, and 400 horses.-"'' The total amount of freight received in the Black Hills after 187 7 is said to have been at least forty million pounds a year.^or a large part of the livestock used in transporting this freight was reared near-by, and the companies secured many other things from the agriculturists of the region. In addition to the transporting done by regular companies, goods were carried to the Black Hills from Pierre by "farmer outfits." During the winter considerable sums were earned in this way by many farmers of Hughes and neighboring counties. (2) Another way in which the gold of the Black Hills influenced the settlement of neighboring areas was by attracting thousands of young men, many of whom, after a stay in the mining camps or towns, went on ranches or farms, or entered business in one or another of the towns seen on the way to the Hills. Indeed, a large majority of the "old timers" in the western part of the statei came to the region during the gold rush. During recent years many foreigners, brought from east- ern cities to work in the Homestake mine, have established agricultural settlements near the Hills. There are several colonies of Finns in Harding County whose founders got their start in the mines of the Black Hills. Many persons who set out for the Black Hills during the excitement over the discoveries of gold were attracted by opportunities for farming or business in the eastern part of the state, and remained there instead of making the costly trip to the gold-field. (3) The presence of gold, the excitement its discovery created, the numerous encounters with the Indians, and especially the exciting times in the mining camps, particularly Deadwood, were described in numer- ous newspapers, magazines, pamphlets and books, ^"s as well as by word -"Curley: loc. cit., pp. 20-40; Tallent: loc. cit., pp. 296-308. -"-Hanson, Jos. MiirS: The Conquest of the Missouri, p. 385, (Chicag-o, 1909). -""United States mail service to the Black Hills was not established until after the area was ceded by the Indians, March 1, 1877. During- the pre- ceding year a celebrated "pony post" between the Hills and Cheyenne car- ried letters at 25 cents each. (Tallent: loc. cit., p. 194-6; Holley: loc. cit., p. 100). -'^'Rosen: loc. cit., p. 117; Amciireas: loc. cit., p. 124. •jospQj. a very readable .-iccount of a trli) from Pierre to Deadwood in 1883 see Maudet-Grancy: Colonels and Cowboys, (London, 1886). The fare charged at that time was $20 and it cost 10 cents per pound for baggage (p. 34). -"•■Andreas: loc. cit., p. 124. =^nbid.. p. 125. -■«8Tallent, D. A.: The Black Hills, (St. Louis, 1899), gives excellent de- scriptions of events in the early days of this region as experienced by the capable authoress, a resident of the area from the first, or as related bv other i)ioneers. There arc dozens of prcten.siou.s books on the history of the Black Hills. Next to Tallent, Rosen, P.: Pahasapa or The Black Hills, (St. Louis, 1899), perhaps is the most worthy. An excellent account, with county histories, will be found in that compendium of historical lore on Dakota, Andreas, A. T.: Historical Atlas of Dakota, (Chicago, 1884). Sig.— 10. 1 146 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA of moutli. These descriptions advertised this region widely, making Dakota a familiar name throughout the country and paving the way for the Great Dakota Boom which followed. (4) The opening of deep gold mines and the development of othea- mineral resources which gave promise of furnishing permanent em- ployment for many workers with consequent great and persistent demand for commerce, led railroad companies to contemplate the extension of their lines to this reigon. It was on a tour of inspection of proposed routes to the Black Hills that the president of the Chicago and Northwestern Railway became so impressed with the great possi- bilities of the area east of the Missouri River that he resolved to try an experiment in railroad building. He believed that if railroads were built in the Dakota prairies, settlers would flock in, provide a great deal of traffic, and so make the railroad investment profitable. This plan received the approval of the directors of the company, and also was adopted promptly by its great rival, the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railroad Company. As a result, the Great Dakota Boom was made possible. 200 4. The Great Dakota Boom During the period 1879-1886 much of the territory of Dakota was settled. What a few years before had been an almost uninhabited expanse of prairie, became a fairly populous farming region, soon to be admitted as a state. Probably more people moved into the region to make farm homes during any two years of the boom than during the twenty years which followed its collapse. The increase in population of 1907 over 1887 (perhaps 60,000) is less than the increase by birth during this period, supplemented by a relatively small immigration, mainly to cities and towns. Because of the importance of this boom in the settlement of the state, it is desirable to consider in some detail the influences, especially the geographic influences, which produced, extended, and terminated it. Of primary significance was the fact that for several years the rainfall came at such times and in such amounts as to permit abundant yields. During several consecutive seasons abnormally heavy yields were secured in spite of careless preparation of the ground, the use of seed poorly adapted to the area, and lack of knowledge (or disregard of it) as to when and how to plant, what crops to sow, and how to care for them. Had the years 1879-86 been as dry as the eight years which preceded and the eight which followed, no such boom could have taken place, and had they been as dry as the period 18 89-9 6, most at- tempts at settlement would have failed. (See chapter V, Climate, p. 50.) A climatic factor of less, though considerable, importance in pro- ducing the boom was the "hard winter" of 1880-81 in the Northwest. The October blizzard, and the very heavy snowfall which accumulated during the winter, were unfavorable to the influx in some respects, since they brought hardships to many unprepared homesteaders and tended to give the area a bad reputation so far as its winters were concerned. In other respects this exceptional winter promoted settlement. The ground still was unfrozen when the first snow came, and because of the great depth of the snow (averaging more than ten feet, it is claimed) 210 it remained unfrozen, or was frozen to a slight depth only over large areas. In March and April, when the snow melted, the soil and sub- soil were saturated with water, and each of the thousands of un- dralned depressions of the prairie contained more or less water. Many 2™Robinson, Doane: A Brief Hist, of S. Dak., p. 157, (New York, 1905). ""Robinson, Doane: A Brief Hist, of S. Dak., p. 164, (New York 1905). This average doubtless applies only to the more eastern part of the area, the part in which there were most settlers at this time. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 147 of them contained water for several years thereafter. As a result of this unique snow-fall, the water-table was higher for years, and some claim that this influenced crops for several seasons, and there was a progressive decrease in yields during several years after ISSl.-^n Cer- tain it is that this snow, by creating thousands of ponds and lakes, sug- gested a humid climate, a condition highly attractive to prospective set- tlers. Aside from the relative abundant precipitation of this period, the extension of railroads throughout most of the area was of great im- portance in starting and maintaining the boom. Without good trans- portation facilities, or the expectation cf their being provided soon, the boom could not have taken place. Even though wheat, corn, and other crops of similar bulk and value yielded exceptionally well, farming would not be profitable if the produce has to be hauled many miles to market. Development is discouraged also where necessary articles are very costly. Because of the lack of timber in much of this region, materials for buildings and fences, and other bulky and heavy arti- cles, cost so much after being wagoned long distances, that most im- provements were discouraged. Only with the help of much fencing and many buildings can a region support a fairlv dense human population by rearing stock that can be driven long distances to market. Before the boom, -the area now included in South Dakota was sev ved very inadequately both by railroads and by river transportation. In 1873 a railroad reached Yankton, the capital, by w^ay of the Mis- souri Valley, and the same year one was built west a few miles to Lake Kampeska, near the site of Watertown. There were 'no settlers in the latter region, and the line was extended to this, the westernmost point on the Sioux River, primarily to secure the building company the largest possible grant of land, as Congress had granted a land subsidy based on the mileage for a line to be built across Minnesota to the Sioux River. -'12 in 1874 a prairie fire destroyed the bridges and culverts along the western part of this line, and that section was useless until these structures were replaced in 187 9.-1'' Sioux Falls, the second largest citv of southern Dakota, had no railroad nearer than Worthington, Min- nesota, sixty-eight miles distant, -n until late in 1878. Then a line was built up the Sioux Valley, connecting Sioux Falls with Sioux City and the East.-i- There were several results of the insufficiency of markets, due chiefly to the few transportation facilities. Most of the few p'oneers found in the area not served by the Yankton-Sioux City line (and many of those in that region before that line was built), as well as the more re'motely located and the poorer homesteaders of subsequent years, "had as their main employment the holding down of a claim"2i''. in the hope that railroa'^s soon would appear and make their land valuable. Most of their buildings were made chiefly of prairie sod, even the roofs, in many cases, consisnting of poles and sod. In case a grove of large trees was near, as was tha condition along most of the Missouri Valley, logs were used in l)uilding. On the ])rairie "buffalo chips," hay, corn-cobs, brush were available, and even ear corn at times, were burned for fuel. Little fencing was done, and that chiefly with local ='iFinlev, J. T. : Certain Climatic Features of the Two Dakotas, p. 25, (Washin.frton. 1890). ='2Andreas, T. D. : Historical Atlas oi Dak., p. 158. (Chicago, 1884). '-'"Heston, F. W.: South Dakota, Encyclopedia Americana. -•'«Holley, F. Q. : Our Heritage from the Dacotahs, p. 39, (Chicago, 1890). -•'^Andreas: loc. cit., p. 165. ^"'Blackburn, W. M.: Hist. Sketch of N. & S. Dak., S. Dak. Dept. of Hist. Coll.. Vol. I. p. 43. 148 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA materials. -1" Only a small portion of the land was tilled, and wild game and fruits contributed largely to the larder of the settler. The money received from the sale of furs secured in winter appreciably increased the income, but until railroads came a large proportion of the home- steaders depended in part on earnings secured in other regions. In view of the hardships arising from the lack of cheap, expedi- tious and reliable transportation, the following quotations appear not to involve much exaggeration: "The whistle of the locomotive would be the sweetest music a resident of the broad prairies could hear, and the mere rumor that a party of railroad surveyors had been seen in a particular locality, was enough to fill the heart of every settler with joy and cause visions of town-site and county-seat speculations to color with all the beauteous hues of the rainbow, his dreams .at night "-i'^ Possi- bly some of the remote pioneers thought "every obstacle would flee as if by magic at the sound of the locomotive. "219 The great importance of the railroad to the settlement of this area is emphasized in the following quotations: "As a direct consequence of progress in railroad construction the increase of the territory in pop- ulation and wealth has been phenomenal in the history of the coun- try."2:20 "The greatest factor in the upbuilding of Dakota, next to her vast expanse , of productive lands, has been the railroad. * * * Gradually the fine agricultural lands and immense stock ranges would, no doubt, have been occupied; but without the -railroad it would have required a century to accomplish what has been done in five years under its powerful influence."--i The .railroad companies supplied more than transportation facili- ties. They issued descriptive pamphlets to the new-comer, containing suggestions of value, and in many cases the railroad company "was explorer, carrier, provider, thinker, heart, soul, and intellect. "--2 A third potent factor in the rapid settlement of Dakota during this period was the earlier occupation of much of the more desirable land elsewhere, especially to the east. By 18 79 there was available in the eastern states little free land as desirable for farming as eastern Dakota. The fertility cf the soil of th's area had been established by "bumper crops," the topography in most places was more even than in most other sections, and, of great significance in creating an agri- cultural boom, the land was ready for the plow, it not being necessary to clear it from trees, stumps, brush or stones as in most of the unoccu- pied areas to the east. A fourth factor, not entirely geographic, was that the clean, nearly level fields of the prairies of Dakota had distinct advantages over the rugged, stony, or stumpy areas so widespread to the east, in the use of most labor-saving farm machinery. The self-binding reaper and the improved grain separator recently had made large-scale farming possi- ble in regions like Dakota. In addition to the four factors, chiefly geographic, discussed above, at least two others, chiefly non-geographic, were of importance in con- nection with the great influx at this time, and they may be remembered briefly. (1) As considerable capital was required for constructing rail- roads and buildings, breaking sod, and caring for crops, it was of Im- 1 '^^^u footi^ote on p. concerning- wooden fences in the Missouri Val- ley. 1 he groves of trees scattered widely throughout the area contributed ™°"'^'i»? "^ fence posts until a relatively recent date (p. — ) '"1st Ann. Rept. of the Board of R. R. Commissioners of the Ter. of Dak., p. 8, (Fargo, 1886). ^'OHollev: loc. cit., p. 342. •^»>Andreas: loc. cit., p. 98. ^iilbid., p. 100. Hist'coTl'.' A^ol.^V. T'lll'Tg'l^. ''^^'''' *° ^- °- ^^^*- ^^^- ^- ^- ^^P*- °' THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 149 portance that at this time the nation was in a prosperous condition. The effects of the panic of 187 3 largely had been overcome, and the abolition of the fiat currency (insufficiently supported greenbacks) had improved greatly the country's credit abroad, with the result that there was a great inflow of foreign capital during this period. (2) Hard spring wheats are grown in the region much more succeesfully than soft winter whent. The invent'on, shortly before this time, of a milling process by which thev could be used in making flour as good as that made from soft wheats greatly increased the jrice of hard wheat and made wheat-raising much more profitable here than it otherwise would have been This increased demand for land, and stimulated settlement. The following table contains further facts of interest concerning the Great Boom. It gives for various counties the dates (!) of the first settlement, (2) the second settlement, (3) by which settlers became fairlv numerous, (4) of county organization. (5) of the first railT-oad, and ( Ci ) when most or all the area was occupied. Table 21. Historical Data Conceniinf;- the Counties^^:^ Fir.st Second Settlers First Settlement County Settlement Settlement Fairly County Railroad Became Made Made Numerous Org-anlzed Arrived General Aurora 1879 .... 1880 1881 1880 1880 Beadle 1879 1879 1880 1880 1880 1880 Bennett 191Z 1912 1912 BonHomm"^ 1859 1859 1869 1862 1881 1872 Brookinsfs 1857 1869 1872 1871 1880 1879 Brown " 1880 1880 1881 1880 1881 1881 Brule 187:^. 1879 1880 1875 1880 1881 Buffalo 1881 1881 1881 1871 Butts 1877 1877 1883 1883 1889 1909 Campbell 1877 1882 1883 1883 1899 1883 Charles Mix 1878 1878 1879 1879 1882 Clark 1879 1879 1880 1882 1882 Clav 1859 1859 1866 1862 1872 1870 Codington 1878 1878 1878 1878 1873-79 1878 Corson 1876 1906 1906 1910 1907 1907 Custer 1875 1876 1876 1877 1885 1877 Davison 1873 1873 1874 1873 1880 1879 Day 1876 1877 1880 1881 1880 1880 Deuel 1872 1877 187i, 1878 1873-77 1878 Dewey 1889 1907 1909 1910 1910 1910 Douglas 1878 1882 1882 1882 1889 1882 Edmunds 1882 1882 1883 1883 1886 1883 Fall River 1876 1877 1885 1883 188.5 1886 Faulk 1882 1882 1883 1883 1884 1884 Grant 1874 1878 1878 1878 1880 1878 Gresorv 1857 1894 1904 1898 1904 1904 HaakoA 1906 1814 1907 1907 Hamlin 1877 1878 1878 1878 1880 1878 Hand 1880 1880 1882 1880 1881 Hanson 1872 1873 1880 1871 1880 1880 Harding- 1880 .... 1909 1909 .... 1911 Hua-hes ...18X0 1880 1880 1880 1880 1882 Hutchinson ....1869 .... 1875 1871 1879 1880 Hvde 1880 1880 1880 1884 1880 1882 Jackson .... 1906 1914 1907 190. .Terauld .1876 1879 1883 1902 1883 Kingsbury ....1873 1877 1879 1879 1880 1882 Lake 1870 1875 1873 1881 . 1878 Lawrence 1876 1876 1876 1877 1890 18.6 Lincoln 1866 1^1 1 1878 1867 1878 18.8 Lyman 1890 .... 1890 189:! 1907 1905 ~ --'The date of organi/.aiToii was -'cured from the tliirteonth census, ex- cept in the case of the two counties foinied since then. Tlu- other data were gathered from manv sources, more from .Vndreas' Historical Atlas or Dakota than from any other single source. The table has been submittf-d to Doane Robinson, secretary of the S. Dakota Historical Society, who made a numb.M- of additions and cy)rr<'ctinns. 150 THE GEOGRAPHY OP SOUTH DAKOTA First County Settlement Made McCook 1871 McPherson 1882 Marshall 1864 Meade 1877 Mellette Miner Minnehaha ....1857 Moody 1857 Pennington ....1876 Perkins Potter 188.3 Roberts 1881 Sanborn 1875 Shannon Spink 1879 Stanley 1875 Sullv 1«S0 Tripi) 1904 Turner 1869 Union 1859 Walwortli 1ST7 Yankton 1859 Ziebach 1909 Second Settlers First Settlement Settlement Fairly County Railroad Became Made Numerous Organized Arrived General 1871 1879 1879 1880 1879 1882 1883 1883 1887 1885 1881 1885 1884 188S 1877 1877 1889 1887 1909 1910 1911 1912 1880 1880 1883 1880 1857 1866 1868 1878 1879 1869 1873 1873 1879 1878 1876 187/ 1877 1886 1877-07 1908 1909 1909 1909 1883 1883 1883 1887 1883 1883 1883 1883 1884 1892 1875 1876 1883 1883 1881 1913 1913 1913 1879 1879 1879 1882 1881 1890 1880 1889 1907 1906 1883 1883 1S83 1910 1883 1909 1909 1909 1909 1909 1871 1871 1871 1880 1879 1859 1859 1862 1872 1870 IXSX 1884 1883 1888 1885 1859 1859 1862 1873 1873 1909 1909 1911 1910 1909 It will be observed from this table that most of the region not then included in Indian reservations first was entered by settlers between 1870 aod 1880. In several cases where the first settlement was several years before 1880, settlers did not soon become numerous. Settlers were numerous before 187 8 only in those few counties (1) containing parts of the lower Missouri and lower Sioux flood-plains, (2) adjoining this tier, or (3) in the Black Hills. It will be noted that some coun- ties were organized with but few settlers. ' Seventeen counties were organized before 187 8, while thirty-two were formed during the next seven years. The fourteen counties organized since 1885 are all west of the Missouri RiveT, most of them having been carved from Indian reservations soon after they were opened to settlement. Before 1880, railroads had been built in only seven counties; five of them were on the southeastern periphery of the Territory. By 1888 all but three or four of the forty-five counties east of the Missouri River and four of the Black Hills counties had at least one railroad. In most counties, settlement was general and railroads arrived at about the same date. The following sketch of railroad extension is especially unsatsifac- tory for the period before 1884. Commencing with 1885 an annual report was prepared by a territorial board of railroad commissioners. For a discussion of the factors which influenced the precise location of railroad lines, see p. 113. Before 1878 only three counties had railroads in operation, the total length of the latter being less than sixty miles. August 1st, 1878, Elk Point and Sioux Falls were connected by rail. 221 During 1879 this line was extended forty miles to Flandreau and the fifth county entered. In 1880 more than 380 miles of line were built; two lines crossed the eastern part of the Territory to the Missouri River at Pierre and Chamberlain, both being reached in November. 225 These lines open up a wide strip of country. The Missouri River was reached at a third l)oint, Running Water, in 1881, 220 and in that year the line which reached Milbank in I88O227 was extended westward to Aberdeen. By the close -■■^Andreas: loc. cit., p. 165. .About thirty-five miles of this line is on the Dakota side of the Sioux River and the rest on the Iowa side. -26Ibid., p. 153. =="Rosen: loc. cit.. p. 417. ^-"Andreas: loc. cit., p. 172. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 151 of 1881 the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Company had 680 milee in operation in this area and the Chicago and Northwestern 445 miles. 228 During 1882 there seems to have been relatively little building. Madison was reached by the Southern Minnesota division of the Chicago, Mil- waukee and St. Paul, and Redfield also received a railroad from the east. During 1883 the line up the Dakota Valley from Yankton to Aberdeen was completed-^u and the east-west line to Madison was ex- tended beyond Howard. Before June 30th, 188 4, this line was extended to Woonsocket. Probably there were other extensions during this year. During the year ending June 30th, 1885, 145 miles of line were com- pleted in Dakota and the total mileage of the two more important southern Dakota companies was brought to 79 5 for the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul and 5 76 for the Chicago and Northwestern. 2-io During the next year. 679 miles were completed; in the succeeding year, 716; 231 "While during the next fiscal year only 114 miles were built. 2-!2 During the calendar year 1886 more than a thousand miles were comjileted in Dakota. A considerable part of this was on the divide between the Sioux and Dakota rivers, but extensive sections were on the western Coteau, and some in the Black Hills. There was little railroad building in southern Dakota between 1888 and 1905. In 1890 the mileage was 2,610; in 1905, only 3,067. As reflected in the following table of land entries and as shown by other data summarized in Table 21, active settlement did not take place in some sections until one, two, or three years after the coming of railroads. This was conspicuously the case west of the Dakota Valley. In many counties the establ'shment of train service coincided with widespread settlement. 2-3 During the height of the boom (1882-85), railroads were not built fast enough to serve the rapidly growing settlements, and much land far from completed lines was filed on. Some such land was not served effectively by railroads for several years. Table 22 Lrand Filed on in Dakota, July 1, 1874, to June 30, 1889. in Acres234 1874, 206,000 1880, 2.269.000 1885, 4,548,000 1875, 392,000 1881. 2,673.000 1886, 3,075,000 1877, 213,000 1882, 4,360,000 1887, 2,076.000 1878, 1,378,000 1883, 7,317,000 1888, 1,881,000 1879, 1,657,000 1884, 11,083,000 1889, 2,383,000 The increase in land claims in the last year indicated in the above table is due to the opening during that year of the Sioux reservation comprising the area now in Lyman and Stanley counties. The magnitude of the Dakota Boom is indicated strikingly by the =2spolk's Gazetteer for 1882, p. 906. ^™Andreas: loc. cit., p. 146. ="*First Annual Rept. of the Board oi R. R. Commissioners, p. 24, (Fargo, 1886). 23'McClure. P. F.: Resources of Dak., p. 245. (Aberdeen, 1887). '^"-Fourth Annual Rept. of Board of R. R. Commissioners. More than half of this was the line between Watertown and Huron. -""I^aniEiuage cannot exaggerate the rapidity with which these communi- ties are built up. You may stand ankle deep in the short grass of the un- inhabited wilderness; next month a mixed train will glide over the waste and stop at some point where the railroad has decided to locate a town. Men, women and children will jump out of the cars and their chattels will be tumbled out after them. From that moment the building begins. The courage and faith of these pioneers are something extraordinary. Their spirit seems to rise above all obstacles;" Blackburn, \V. M.: Historical Sketch of N. and S. Dak., S. D. Dept. of Hist. Coll., Vol. I, pp. 73-74, written 1893, published 1901. -■"The figures for 1875 to 1887 are from McClure: loc. cit., pp. 276-79 for 1888 from Hagerty: Dictionary of Dak., p. 10, and his "Terr, of Dak." The figure for 1883 as given by Andreas: loc. cit., p. 98, is 10,000 larger than that given above. 152 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA •following comparisons: During the first five years of the territorial gov- ernment (1862-66) only 100,000 acres were filed on,2:i'> and before Aug- ust 1, 1870, less than noo.OOO acres had been taken. 2"i; Nearly two-fifths of the entire acreage filed on in the United States in the year ending June 30. 18 83, was in Dakota, where nearly twice as much land iTY2 million acres) was filed on, as in Minnesota, Nebraska, and Kansas com- bined.-"'" During the decade ending June 30, 1889, nearlv forty-two mil- lion acres, or nearly half the area of Dakota, was filed on. Probably more than three-fifths of this immense area was in southern Dakota, which then had about two-thirds of the population of Dakota. By 1887 no free land remained in twenty-two counties of southern Dakota and nine others had an average of only 2,.5 00 acres each,^ -s most of which was then under water. The growth in population during this period shows most clearly the magnitude of the immigration. Fairly reliable data are obtainable only for 1880 and 1S8.J, in which years a federal and territorial census, respectively, was taken. The following table 23 indicates the ppoulation by counties for tliese years, together with the increase of 18 85 over ISSO: Table 23. ropiilatioii, 1880 and 1885, According; to Censuses of Those Years County 1885 Aurora 5,950 tSeadle 10,318 BonHomme 7,449 Brookinss 8,228 Brown 12,241 Brule 7,524 Butte 1,081 Campbell 1,199 Charles Mix 4,022 Clark 4,892 Clay 6,201 Codington 5,648 Custer 1,292 IJavison 5,940 Day 5,601 Desmet 76 Deuel 4,403 Douglas ; 3,801 Edmunds 2,422 hwing- 50 Fall River 472 Faulk 3,120 Grant 6,793 Hamlin 3,757 Hand 7,057 Hanson 8,933 Harding 43 Hughes 5,268 Hutchinson 9,006 Hyde 2,175 Jerauld 3,458 Kingsbury 7,345 I..ake 5,432 Lawrence 10,326 Lincoln 7,598 McCook 5,641 McPherson 1,422 Marshall 2,187 Miner 4,928 Minnehaha 13,857 Moody 5,189 Pennington 3,224 I'otter 2,836 Koberts 2,154 1880 Increase Over 1880 69 5,881 1,290 9,028 5,446 1,981 4,965 3,323 353 11,888 238 7,286 1,081 50 1,149 407 3,615 114 4,778 5,001 1,200 2,156 3,492 995 297 1,256 2,684 97 5,504 76 2.302 2,101 6 3,795 2,422 50 472 4 3,116 3,010 3,783 693 3,064 153 6,904 1.303 2,632 43 268 5,000 5,573 3,433 2,173 3,458 1,102 ■ 6,243 2,657 2,775 13,248 2,922 5,896 1,702 1,283 4,358 1,422 2,187 363 4,565 8,251 5,606 3,915 1,242 2,244 980 2,336 2,154 =3»Armstrong, M. K. : Early Empire Builders, d. 47, (St. Paul, 1904). -•soBatchelder, Sec: Hist, of Dak., p. 45, (Yankton, 1870). -•'^Andreas: loc. cit., p. 98. »«McClure: loc. cit. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 153 Table — Populatioii ISSO aud 1SS5 acoordlne to censiiscN of those years. County 1885 1880 Increase Over 1880 Sanborn 4,106 4 106 Spink 10,446 477 9,969 Stanley 653 793 140 Sully 3,233 296 2,937 Turner . 8,282 5,320 2,962 Union 8,017 6,813 1,204 Walworth 1,412 46 1,366 Yankton 9,404 8,390 1,014 Unnamed strip 1,055 1,055 The total population of the area now in South Dakota, according to the census of 1880. was 08,2fi8. including 16,487 in the Black Hills. In 18 85 it was 26 3,411. of whom only 14,842 were in the Black Hills. 239 The increase in the eastern part of the area (the rest was in Indian reservations) therefore was 166,788 in five years. In 1890, 328,808 persons were recorded in the state, of which number 3 2,5 59 were in the Black Hills region. The enumeration for 1880 was made after the great influx was well started, while that for 189 0 was taken after there had been a great exodus due to two or more crop failures and to many disappointments on the part of town builders and speculators. There- fore it is impossible to give accurately the total influx to this area during the boom in question. An approximate statement is possible: The pop- ulation reported by the ninth census (1870) was l^ss than 12,000. The number was estimated to have doubled by the winter of 1872.240 in 1875 the Territory of Dakota was estimated to have 50,000 people, 2*1 of whom nearly 3 5,000 probably were in what now is South Dakota. The increase between 18 75 and 187 8 was slow, except in the Black Hills, and it is likely that the eastern part of the region had less than 50,000 when the boom started in 1878. The rapid influx continued for some time after the enumeration of 1885. The Bureau of Immigration esti- mated that the increase for 1886 was over 85,000, and for the first half of 1887 about 45,000.212 Assuming that the increase for the last seven months of 1887 was at a corresponding rate, the poi)ulation of the area would have been more than 440,000 in June, 1887 — an increase of more than 75 0% in about nine years. Striking as the influx to Dakota during this period is when con- sidered in its larger aspects, as above, it may be illustrated even more vividly by the consideration of smaller units. Beadle county in 18 80 had only thirty-seven acres in farms; in 18 8 5, it had 13 5, 8 3 4. 21: Huron was platted by the railroad company in May, 1880. The first train ar- rived June 2 5. The po])ulation in the spring of 1884 was estimated at 3000. The improvements made during 1883 cost $450,000,241 Brown county in 1880 had only 468 acres in farms; by 1885 it had 248,346,245 and a population of more than 12,000. Early in 1880 it had contained fewer than 100 persons. 241. Previous to June, 1881, the site of Aberdeen was a wilderness, but the first railroad train arrived July 6,. of that year, 247 and in June, 1882, it had a poi)ulation of 500.24s Blunt was first settled in the fall of 1882. In December of 1883 it boasted a popu- 2a>The decreaoe there was produced in p^rt by the almost complete de- struction of Deadwood by fire in 1883. ^'cBrennan, John: Conditions and Resources of Southern Dak., p. 3, (Sioux City, 1872). -"Hist, and Progress of Central Dak , p. 1, (Chicago. 1882). -'-McClure: loo. cit.. p. 87. -'•'McClure: loc. cit., p. 243. -'*Andieas: loc. cit., p. 145. -■"■•McClure: loc. cit., p. 24.3. -'".■\ndreas: loc. cit., p. 136. -♦"Polk's Gazetteer for 1882, i>. 902. -'"Andreas: loc. cit., p. 136. 154 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA lation of nearly a thousand, occupying 3 00 well-made buildings. In May, June and July, 1883, real estate transactions amounted to $150,000 and business property advanced 300 7r in value. --to Mitchell dates from May,. 1879. It obtained a railroad in September, 1880, and a United States Land office in October. It was incorporated in 1881 and had a population of 1200 in 1882. With the building of the second railroad, it had a wonderful growth in 1882-83, during which time flour mills, feed mills, an elevator, foundry, machine shop, and brick yards were established. ^''O Woonsocket was platted in September, 18 83. Two months later it had 525 persons, and seven months later it had more than 800. 251 "The site of Redfield prior to July, 1882, was an unbroken wilderness. "252 i^ November of that year it was reported to have 1000 residents. 25:! Brook- ings, first settled in 1879, but not recorded as a town by the census of 1880, had a population of 800 in 1882.254 In 1878 the largest place in the area now forming eastern South Dakota was Yankton, the capital. It had a population of 737 by the census of 1870 and perhaps but few more than a thousand people in 1878. Sioux Falls, the second center, was then a village of 600 or 700 people.2s.'-. Vermilion was third in rank. So great was the influx after 1878 that by 1880 four places, Watertown, Canton, Elk Point, and Ver- milion, had a population of more than 500 but less than 750 each, while two, Sioux Falls and Yankton, had 2164 and 3431 respectively. Sixteen other towns are recorded by the census of 18 80, but Aberdeen, Brook- ings, Pierre, Redfield, Milbank, Webster, Sisseton, Chamberlain, and other towns of present prominence had not yet been founded, while Mitchell had a population of only 320, Huron of 164, and Madison of 9 6. By 1885 the places named above were significant towns, as they still are. When the boom began, few people foresaw which of the scores of towns platted were to become important cities, and which were to remain mere way-stations or county trading posts. Ambitious men of ability settled in about in equal numbers in each of many villages and each endeavored to make his town the chief one of the section. The rivalry between various towns therefore became very strong and resulted in many incidents that were ludicrous and many disappointments that were pathetic. 250 With few exceptions each town tried to become county seat. In several counties violent possession was taken of the county records. 25- a few examples of keen rivalry follow: In Sanborn county, Letcher contested with Forestburg (centrally located) for the seat. When Woonsocket secured two railroad lines and became the only town in the county so favored, the records appeared there mysteriously and Woonsocket succeeded in retaining them. 258 in Charles Mix County, there have been several contending towns, and Wheeler, an insignificant place not possessing a railroad, is the county seat. In Bon Homme County, Bon Homme, the oldest town, finally lost the seat of local govern- ment to Scotland, a railroad town.'ss in Turner, Swan Lake was for years the chief town and county seat, but it was not entered by a railroad and as a result slowly declined and finally lost the county seat. In Tripp county, Lamro, with a population of more than one thousand in 1910, the county seat, was on the direct line of a projected railroad, completed =*''Ibid., p. 150. 2»'Ibid., p. 143. ="Ibld., p. 169, 252Polk's '82: loc. cit.. p. 1081. ^The History and Progress of Central Dakota, p. 19 (Chicago, 1882.) 2«Polk's '82: loc. cit., p. 926. =»It has a population of Sg."? in 1873. but did not increase much until a rail- VSn?^^'"'"^'®'^ *" ^^'^ (King's Handbook of the United States, p. 793, New York, 1896. I ^"Robinson, Doane: loc. cit., p. 157. ^.M)nleton's .\nnual F.ncvlopedia for 1884, Dakota, (New York, 1885.) sssAndreas: loc. cit., p. 169. -^Ibid,, p. 146. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 155 to within a few miles. When the line was extended in 1911, a curve was made to avoid Lamro, and a railroad town named Winner was laid out little more than a mile away. Lamro was desertel, its buildings being moved to Winner, which became a town of 1500 almost immediately. There have been many other instances of railroad favoritism in Dakota, especially before the Board of Railroad Commissioners began its work in lSS4.:ii;f For the foregoing reasons, and others, there was great uncertainty about the future of towns during this boom period. This is illustrated by contemporaneous gazetteers. In one of them,-'''i Huron,, which in three or four years became, as it still is, one of the more important cities of the state, received only mention, two and a half lines being given to it. In the same volume thirty lines were given to a discussion of Jamesville in Yankton county, a town which soon disappeared. Scores of other towns which disappeared within a few years, received extended notice. The boom times were brought to an end chiefly by croj) failures. In 1SS6 "Dakota suffered in common with the rest of the country from business depression and from drought which injured the small grains, producing a shortage of at least a third in wheat and oats. The drought was local, some localities having splendid crops and others almost total failures of small grain."-''- A weather bureau estimate places the shortage of crops at 50 %:-'^'-'- In 1887 there was a severe and widespread drought. In many counties little harvesting was done.2<'4 In 1888 droughts were local only, and the average crop was not much below reasonable expecta- tions,^'i"- but "the terrible drought of 1889 produced widespread desti- tution."^ch Other factors helped end the boom. The free land east of the Missouri River was nearly all taken by the summer of 1887. This region was fairly well supplied with railroads at that date, and few lines were built, with the result that towns which had looked for a railroad or for additional lines, began to lose hope. Financial conditions in general were less and less satisfactory, and loans were harder to secure. The difficulties became greater after each drought. While the exodus from Dakota which followed the collapse of the boom was produced primarily by the drought, it was increased by disap- pointments in business and land speculation. Furthermcre, thousands left who had come to the region chieflv to secure land while it could be obtained for little or nothing from the government, and without any firm intention of making it their permanent home After receiving title to their claims, many did not need even a moderate drought to induce them to leave. 5. The Admission of Soutli Dakota to Statehood An urgent demand for statehood resulted from the great influx of 1879-86,. and after vexatious delays,. South Dakota was admitted in 1889. The movement for statehood began during the first boom (1869-74). A memorial to Congress calling for a division on the 4 6th parallel of the Territory and for the admission of the southern part as a state was passed unanimously by the Legislature Jan. 12, 1871.2<'.7 a similar mem- orial was passed with but four dissenting votes on De?. ol, 187 2 This memorial again was passed with but one dissenting vote Dec. 19, -■""See -Vnnual Reports of this board, especially naRc 0 of tin- Kst. ^"iPolk's Gazetteer for 1881, p. 874. (Detroit. 1881.) ^^-Governor's Report to the Sec. of Interior for 1886. -'"■■'Finlev: loc. cit., i). 28. 2«Ibifl., p. 28. ■-«nbi(l.. I). 29. arnoovf-rnor'p Renort for 1800. »«Hagerty, F. H.: The State of S Dak., p. 31, (.Aberdeen, 1889). 156 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 1874, and unanimously on Jan. 24, 1877.-'<'« Between 1876 and 1878, the time of the gold-rush to the Black Hills, there were vigorous de- mands for the creation of a Territorv of the Black Hills, to be called Black Hills, Lincoln, Eldorado, or by some other appropriate name.siis' A bill to this effect came before the senate in February, 1877. ^r^ in 1879 a protest against the admission of Dakota as one state was sent to Congress praying for the admission of three states, one to center about tho Black Hills, was passed by the legislature. ^tj a bill to this effect was reported favorably in each house of Congress, but passed neither.-'' In 1883, "After an unparalleled volume of immigration to southern Dakota, which is believed to have received fully 250,000 people in the two preceding years, "274 another memorial praying for a divis- ion and admission was passed. The removal in 1882 of the territorial capital from Yankton to the more centrally located Bismark, intensi- fied the desire of the southern part for statehood. A constitutional convention of 350 delegates assembled at Huron June 19, 1883, and another at Sioux Falls on September 4th of the same' year. A consti- tution was adopted by a two-thirds majority on Nov. 3, 1883, but was ignored by Congress.-'"' Jan. 19, 1885. a memorial was passed unan- imously by the legislature praying for a division on either the 4 6th parallel or the seventh standard parallel, for the admission of two states. This memorial states that "The probable division has been considered at every territorial political convention held in the past thirteen years, and these conventions, in almost every instance without a dissenting vote, have invariably declared for division. Public institutions have been located-"'' and built with a view toward division. 277 Additional rea- sons for dividing are set forth in this document, such as: "The union of the two sections into one state would be unnatural and would lead to endless difficulties. The division prayed for is wise. It will quiet strife, prevent difficulties and misunderstanding, and will promote the interests of both sections. "-7s "During 1886 to 1889 there was much agitation for a separate state for the Black Hills by the people of the the Hills, but it was to no purpose. "-7u The division of Dakota into North Dakota and South Dakota and their admission as states was made a national issue by the Republican party in 1888. This party prevailed in the election, and the bill was passed Feb. 14th, 1889. The people on October 1, readopted the constitution of 18 85 and the two states were admitted Nov. 2, 1889. -so The boundaries of the state are discussed in Chapter I (p. 9.) At this point a few quotations concerning the causes for a division of the territory will be in order. "Division was inevitable. The great territory contained three one-sided centers of population, widely sep- arated and differing in social interests, products and transportation facilities."-'^' "There was at this period an inherent difference between sisibid., p. 31. TJ^^l^'^^' ^- '^■- The Black Hills, p. 360, (St. Louis, 1899). ^"Ibid., p. 380. -"'Hagerty: loc. cit , p. 31. -•-Ibid., p. 231. -■•'Rosen, Peter: Pahasapa or the Black Hills, p. 396, (St. Louis, 1899). -*Hag^erty: loc. cit.. p. 31. -•75Andreas, D. T.: Historical Atlas of Dak, p. 100, (Chicag-o, 1884). -'"rhe location of the state institutions of both states is unfortunate; nearly all are situated near the eastern or southeastern boundary. '"•"A memorial to the Congress of the United States from the Legislative Assembly of Dakota Territory praying for the division of Dakota and the a(itni>sioii of the southern portion as a state. Passed Jan. 19, 1885, Bis- mark, p. 6. -'"Ibid., p. 8. -'•»Tallent: loc. cit., p. 883 asoRobinson, Doane: A Brief Hist, of S. Dak., p. 171, (New York, 1905,. ^"Hagerty, F. H.: The Terr, of Dak., p. 5, (Aberdeen, 1889) THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 157 the people of northern and southern Dakota. South Dakota was chiefly occupied by homesteaders who brought with them the conservative notions of the small farmer about public and private e:?onomy, morality and education. On the other hand, North Dakota was controlled chiefly by bonanza farmers, captains of industry, whose traditions were entirely at variance with those of the homesteaders of South Dakota"-'*- (and later of western North Dakota). Large holdings of land were secured much more readily and promptly by wealthy men in northern Dakota than in southern, as in the former there were large tracts of railroad lands given by the government to subsidize the building of the Northern Pacific Railroad. There were no such lands in southern Dakota. The fact that the nearly level Red River Valley occupied early by bonanza wheat farmers, has its southern end near the 4 6th ])arallel iiossibly was an influence, as was the fact that this parallel divides Dakota nearly equally. Aside from the seventh standard parallel four miles to the south, no other division line appears to have been suggested officially. 6. Dry Years and Their Effects As noted in Chapter V (climate), local droughts are to be ex- pected somewhere in South Dakota nearly every year, and widespread droughts are likely to occur at not infrequent intervals. Some of the influences of the severe droughts of 1864, 1874, 1886, 1887, and 1889 have been noted. The longest and most widespread drought in the history cf the area commenced in 1889, and lasted in most sec- tions until 1896 or 1897. Rainfall was deficient for a large part of South Dakota nearly every year of that period, and in several years there was an almost total failure of crops in many counties. •-^•' A dis- cussion of the amount and distribution of the precipitation and the effects on yields occurs in Chapter V (p. 60.) The importance of droughts in bringing the Great Boom to a close and in producing an exodus of population also has been mentioned. The exodus con- tinued for several years. It was increased by the panic of 1893 produced in part by Avidespread drought in the Great Plains and in the Prairie Plains during this and the two preceding years. Many counties of South Dakota, most of them west of the Dakota River, de- creased greatly in population; and in 1897 many probably had less than half as many people as they had a decade before. The exodus produced by the droughts was selective in character. The less patient and those readiest to start again elsewhere usually left soonest. The proportion of foreigners in South Dakota was in- creased consiJicuously, while that of Americans born in ceirtain states, especially New England and New York, decreased greatlv. Many native Americans, being more or less familiar with other parts of the coun- try and having friends and relatives in other regions, soon discovered greater opportunities elsewhere. As a class they probably were more likely than recent immigrants to have the funds with which to move. Others lacked the perseverance to await favorable seasons, or the patience to sow a second or a third crop when the preceding one or two had been failures. Most of them, being accustomed to some degree of prosi)erity, were unwilling to subsist on the meager diet and endure the other hardships imposed by dry years and i)artial crops. Most of the foreigners in Dakota had come from northern Europe or eastern Canada and many of them were accustomed to poverty and meager crops resulting from infertile soils, tiny fields, or adverse climate. Some of the immigrants found conditions in Dakota even during the 2«mobinson, Doane: loc. clt.. p. 172. ='°Robinson, Doane: A Brief Hist, of S. Dak., p. 171, (New York, 1905) 15S THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA worst half-decade an improvement over those they had left. Such as were inclined to leave Dakota were in most cases prevented by lack of information concerning other regions or for want of funds with which to move. In view of the foregoing facts, the following statements are not surprising: "The population of southern Dakota is largely native Amer- icans, mostly coming from New England, New York, Hlinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, Iowa, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. There also are a number of Norwegians and Germans. ■^^^ In 1872 it was estimated that in Min- nehaha and Lincoln counties the population was about ^•>0''/r Yankees, and that most of the rest were Scandinavians; 2s-, that in Union County "out of every seven, two are Anglo-American, two French-American^ two Scandinavian and one Irish, there being only a dozen German fam- ilies in the county.''^'*" "In Clay Counfv about one-third are Anglo- American, one-third Scandinavians, one-fifth Irish, and one-sixth Ger- mans and French-Americans."-'-'" "In Yankton County perhaps one-half are Anglo-Americans, one-fourth Scandinavians, and the rest Bohemians, Germans and Irish. "sss "In Bonhomme County one-half are Bohemians, two-fifths Anglo-AmeTicans, and one-sixth Irish. "^sn When it is re- called that the last and the first two counties mentioned above then had very small populations, it appears that the foreign element was not larger than .50 9f. During the Great Boom a flood of native Americans quite submerged, in many counties, the foreign element.-"" Codington County, credited with more than 6,000 people in 1884, was settled very largely by New Yorkers. -m Beadle Countv, with a population of 10,000 in 1884, was settled chiefly from Illinois, Iowa, Indiana, Wisconsin. 232 Spink County was settled first by a colony from Boston, but soon many settlers came from Minnesota. Iowa. Illinois, Michigan, and Misconsin.29'» At the census of 1885, 72% of the population of southern Dakota were native-born Americans. 20-1 Although this element was increased to 73.9% in 1890, and to 78% in 1900,- the foreign element had increased relatively, as shown by the figures for the children of foreign- born parents. In 1890 these made 31.4% of the population, while in 1900 they made 38.9%. The total foreign element (including native children of foreign-born parents) was 57.-5% in 1890, and 60.9% in 1900. Probably the ratios were more ne(arly 50% in 1887 (at the close of the Boom) and 75% in 1897, when a great influx of native Americans began. The Boom affected not only the size and the temperamental and racial characteristics of the population, but also its distribution within the area and its occupations. Land values likewise were changed greatly. Six counties in the southeastern part of the state in which it is claimed that there was in no year failure both of small grain and corn crops, decreased in population little if any, while other counties lost heavily. Much land which had been filed on west of the Missouri River, especially in Stanley, Lyman, and Fall River counties, was de- =»f» and drilled several wells, most of them in Indian reser- vations, but no widespread system of irrigation was adopted. 6. Wet Years and the Return of Good Times Commencing about 1895, the rainfall increased, and, of much more importance to agriculture, a larger proportion of it came when needed by plants. Finally, in 1898, a series of "wet years" commenced, and fairly satisfactory conditions continued in most of the state until 1910. As a result, these were years of bountiful yields and of great ««sFoster, J. S.: Outlines of Hist, of Dak., pp. 45. 54, 88, (Yankton. 1870). ««Brennan, John: Conditions and Resources of Southern Dak., p. 95. =»^Ibld., p. 4. ™8polk's Gazetteer for 1882, loc clt., pp. 1069, 1021, 932. "•Culver, G. E.: The Practicability of Irrigating with Artesian Waters in the Dakotas, (Washington. 1893). 160 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA prosperity. Bank deposits in South Dakota increased 600% between 19 00 and 1910.-'"" Land values increased greatly. The aggregate value of all farm lands increased 377% between 1900 and 1910. The total increase between 189 5 and 1910 was at least 500%. Many farms in- creased in value more than 1,000% in the fifteen years. The increase in population between 1895 and 1910 was 252,913, more than 76%. A large proportion of this increase was west of the Dakota Valley, and more than 50% was west of the Missouri Valley, in which area the in- crease in population between 1903 and 1910 was perhaps 400%. Twelve counties were organized in the latter region as a result of this influx, and nearly all the government land available was taken up. The eager- ness of many people to secure some of these lands is reflected in the following statements: In 1904 a part of the Rosebud Indian Reserva- tion was open to settlement; 106,000 persons applied for the right to homestead land, none of which was free, and most of which cost $2.50 or more an acre. In 1907 a small part of the Brule Reservation was opened, and 4,350 persons registered for some one of the 343 homesteads available. In 1909 most of the Cheyenne and Standing Rock Reservations were opened, and there were 80,14 2 entries for 10,000 homesteads. 7. Recent Years The years 1910, 1911, and, in many sections, 1912 as well, werf^ exceptionally dry, as dry as any three consecutive years in the early 189 0's. In 1910 the average rainfall, of the state was only two-thirds the normal amount, and although the total amount in 1911 was greater, a considerable share came in the autumn when it was a handicap, as it interfered with harvest. In 1913 fairly satisfactory crops were obtained in most regions, while in 1914 yields were good on the average. The weather conditions of these years are discussed further in Chapter V. The effects of these dry years in the western part of the state were somewhat similar to those produced by the dry years which terminated and followed the Great Boom. Theire was a considerable exodus from this section, and land values fell in some cases to $5.00 an acre. Little land was abandoned, however. The farmers that remained acquired larger holdings, by lease or purchase, and by raising more livestock, l)racticing "dry farming," and cultivating alfalfa, continued to utilize most of the land. In the eastern part of the state, the effects were far less pronounced. There most farmers practice mixed farming, pay much more attention to the selection of suitable varieties of plants, and employ methods of tillage better suited to local conditions. Many have artesian wells which afford a constant supply of water for their stock even in the dryest years. In each of these particulars, conditions there have improved greatly since 1887, and the occasional drought is far less disastrous than formerly. In the southeastern quarter of the state, land values have continued to rise, stimulated perhaps by the contrast between this section and areas less fortunate in respect to rainfall. Many farms in this quarter have sold recently for more than $175 per acre, and some for more than $200.00 per acre. Conditions during recent years are treated in more detail in the first third of this chapter, under "Present Conditions." Sr.MMARY OF SETTLEMENT Most of the settlement of this area took place during three boom periods, the second or "Great Dakota Boom" being the one during which the largest addition to the population was made. Between the periods of rapid settlement, the population increased slowly or not at *">Johnson. P. E.: S .Dak., A Republic of Friends, p. 63, (Pierre, 1911). THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 161 all. Each of the booms was due to railroad extension and a series of wet years; each was terminated by poor crops, due in most cases to droughts. The first boom began in 186:8, and developed rapidly in 1870. In the former year, Sioux City, Iowa, was reached by railroads, and in the latter year several lines approached and fifteen projected lines which were to serve Dakota were much talked of.'"'i However, railroad build- ing was stopped by the panic of 1873, ^(^s before southern Dakota had many miles of railroad, and the boom was terminated by the ravages of grasshoppers between 18 73 and 1875,-^o.! t^e crop of 1874 being nearly destroyed by them. Thousands of persons were reduced to the verge of starvation."'* The Great Dakota Boom was inaugurated in 1879, after two years of good crops, by renewed activity in railroad building. The presence of a large mining population-"' in the Black Hills was one incentive for railroad extension in that direction, and the appropriation of nearly all the land in Iowa was another. During this boom nearly 2,500 miles of railroad were built in the area now included in eastern South Dakota, ■"'! and a flood of settlers occupied most of the eastern half of the state, and parts of the western half. The Sioux Reservation de- layed until 1889 the occupation of a large section west of the Missouri River. The population of southern Dakota increased from perhaps 60,000 in 1878-'^- to more than 3.50,000 in 1886. •!"« When all the better land available had been filed on, the further influx of settlers was stopped by severe droughts in 1886:1"!' and 1887. -i" The widespread droughts of 1889:^ii and of the earlv 1890's drove thousands from this area, as from other sections of the Great Plains and nearly depopulated certain counties, especially those west of the longitude of the Dakota River. The third boom commenced in the eastern part of the state about 189 8, as a result of fairly good crops for two or three years. During the decade 1900-1910 farm land values increased 37 7%, •''12 and the population of the state increased 4 5%.si3 All the more desirable land of the section east of the Missouri was again occupied, and a strong de- mand developed for railroad extension and for the opening of the Indian reservations west of the Missouri River. This was due in part to the fact that settlers had reported good harvests for several years '"'Batchelder: Sketch of Hist, and Resources of Dak. Terr., p. 43, (Yankton, 1870) •■«>2Polk's Gazetteer of Minn, and Dak. for 1881, p. 782, (Detroit, 1881). 303Trumbo: Reminiscences, S. D. Dept. of Hist. Coll., Vol. V, p. 89, (Pierre, 1910). 3'«Andreas: Hist. Atlas of Dak , p. 164. (Chicago, 1884). ■•"=16,487 bv the census of 1880. "•^More than 2000 miles were built in Dak. Terr, by 1883 (Kerr: Presi- dent's Annual Address, S. D. Hi^t. Soc, S. D. Dept. of Hist. Coll., Vol V, p. 81, 1910), and in the fiscal years ending June 30, 1885. 1886 and 1887, 145 miles, 679 miles, and 716 miles (Annual Reports of R. R. Commissioners, 1-111). Southern Dak had less than 100 miles in 1878, and more than 2600 miles a decade later. =»"The population was 11,925 according to the census of 1870. It had; doubled bv late in 1872 (Brennan, .John: Conditions and Resources of South- ern Dak., "p. 39, 1872). The increase 1873-78 was slow, while from 1878 to 1880, when 98,711 are recorded, the increase was rapid. nnsxhere were 263,411 by the census of 1885 (June) and in addition to an unknown increase for the balance of that year there was an estimated Increase of 85.000 for 1886, (Commissioner of Immigration, quoted in Report of Governor in 1886). •""'Governor's Report to the Secretary of the Interior for 1886. ■■""Finley, J. P.: Certain Climatic Features of the Two Dakotas, p. 28, (Washington, 1893) •iiPinlev: loc. cit., p. 28. "-'Bureau of Census: Supplement for S. Dak., p. 615, (Washington, 1913). "'•■'Ibid., p. 568. Sig.— 11. 162 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA even in the drier parts of the state. Finally the Missouri River was bridged at Pierre and Chamberlain in 1907, and at Mobridge in 1909. Between 1906 ana 1910, inclus've, several hundred miles of line were built west of that river, and by 1911 nearly all the government land of much agricultural value, and open to entry, had been filed on. During the decade 19 00-1910 the total population of the area west of the Missouri River, Lawrence County in the Black Hills excepted, increased nearly 440%, from 27,343 to 115,973.314 Most of this in- crease occurred in the last third of the decade. Several dry years, of which 1910 was the first and the most severe, have caused many homesteaders to leave soon after receiving patents for their claims, decreasing greatly the population of many western counties. Geographic conditions, especially climate, have been powerful in- fluences in this area. The native flora, funa, and the settlement and development of the area clearly reflect these conditions; and the activities of the people are chiefly in response to geographic conditions. From a geographic viewpoint, the area seems destined to remain predominantly agricultural, and much of the western half, at least, of the type in which stock raising is prominent. si«Thirteenth Census: loc. cit . pp. 596-609. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 163 A BIBLIOGRAPHY OP THE LITERATURE CITED Appleton: Annual Encyclopedia 1875-96, Dakota, (New York, 1876-96). Contains extracts from official reports and summary for the year.) Armstrong, M. K.: History and Resources of Dakota, (Yankton, 1866). (Deals chiefly with the personalities of early politicians). Early Empire Builders of the Great West (a reprint of the proceed- ing), (St. Paul, 1901). Andreas, A. T.: Historical Atlas of Dakota, (Chicago, 1884). (The chief authority on the Territory before 1884). Bailey, D. R.: History of Minnehaha County, S. D., (Sioux Falls, 1899). (Mostly biographical sketches of prosperous farmers and business men.) Baldwin, Geo. P.: The Black Hills, (Chicago, 1904). (An elementary treatment.) Batchelder, G. A.: A Sketch of the History and Resources of Dakota Territory, (Yankton, 1870). (Report of Sec. of Immigration written to attract New England clerks). Barrows, Harlan H.: The Geography of the Middle Illinois Valley, Bull. 15, 111. Geol. Surv., (Urbana, 1910). (A thorough discussion of a region similar in many ways to extreme southeastern South Dakota). Beadle, W. H.: Geography and History of Dakota, (Minneapolis, 1889). (A booklet written for elementary grade pupils). Belief ourche Irrigation Project, The, (C. & N. W. R. R.), (Chicago, 1912). (A railroad leaflet). Bigelow, F. H.: The Daily Normal Temperature of Daily Normal Pre- cipitation of the U. S., Bull. R., U. S. Weather Bureau, (Washing- ton, 1908). (Contains on South Dakota only the tables here reprinted) . Blackburn, W. M.: Historical Sketch of North & S. Dakota, S. D. Dept. of Hist., Coll., Vol. 1, 1902. (A fairly well organized sixty-page sketch). Bowker, R. R.: Dakota Ter. Publications, Bibliography State Publications, Vol. Ill, (New York, 1905). (A list of official publications of the Ter- ritory of Dakota). Brackenridge: View of Louisiana. In Thwaites: Early Western Travels. (An account of travels in 1811 to the site of Bismark). Bradford, W. J. A.: Notes on the Northwest, (New York, 1846). (Mostly a reprint of government reports on the geology of Minn, and la.) Bradbury: Travels in N. America in 1811, In Thwaite's: "Early West- ern Travels." (Contains some interesting descriptions of land and life in the zone bordering the Missouri River). Brennan, ,Tohn: Conditions and Resources of Southern Dakota. (A val- uable booklet issued by the Southern Dakota Railroad Company), (Sioux City, 1872). Chittenham, H. M.: History of American Fur Trade of the Far West, (New York, 1904). (The authoritative work). History of the Early Steamboat Navigation on the Missouri River, New (York, 1904). (A general work of value). Coffey, G. N.: A Reconnaisance Soil Map of Western S. Dakota, Rept. of Field Work for 1909, U. S. Bur. of Soils, (Washington, 1911). (A good base map as well as a soil map, with some pertinent notes). Coulter, J. L.: Industrial History of the Valley of the Red River of the North, Coll. of the State Hist. Society of N. Dak., Vol. Ill, 1910. (A valuable account). 164 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Coues, Elliot: Birds- of the Northwest, (Washington, 1872). An orni- thological work only recently superseded). The Journal of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, (New York). (The first publication of this valuable journal). Craig, Wallace: North Dakota Life, Bull. Am. Geog. Society XL, 1908. (A suggestive, but in many places a speculative article). Culver, G. E.: The Practicability of Irrigating with Artesian Waters in the Dakotas, Washington, ( 1893). (A leaflet intended to result in appropriations for large-bore flows). Curley, E. A.: The True Story of the Black Hills, (Chicago, 1876). (A booklet of little value). Custer, Mrs. E. B.: Boots and Saddle or Life in Dakota, (New York, 1885). (Little about South Dakota; much about life' in camp with Gen. Custer). Darton, N. H.: Geology and Water Resources of So. Dakota, Water Supply Paper 227, U. S. Geol. Survey, (Washington, 1909). (An excellent summary of these subjects). The Geology and Water Resources of the Great Plains, Prof. Paper 32, U. S. Geol. Survey, (Washington, . 1905 ). (A voluminous preliminary report). The Geology and Water Resources of the Southern Black Hills, 21st Annual Report., U. S. Geol, Survey, pt. IV, (Washington, 1901). (An authoritative detailed report). The Geology and Water Resources of the Northern Black Hills, Prof. Paper 65, U. S. Geol. Survey, (Washington, 1909). (An authoritative report). Geologic folios 85, 107, 108, 127, 128, 150, 164, U. S. Geol. Survey, (Washington, 19 02-09). (Detailed reports on small areas ) . New Developments in Deep Well Boring and Irrigation in Eastern S. Dakota, 18th Ann. Rept., IT. S. Geol. Survey. (A progress report, largely superseded). A Prel. Report on Artesian Waters of a Portion of the Dakotas, 17th Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey, Pt. 11. (Superseded by water-supply paper 2 27). Day, C. P.: Frost Data of the U. S., Bull. V., U. S. Weather Bureau, (Washington, 1911). (All data pertaining to S. D. given is re- ported here). Deadwood, Board of Trade: The Black Hills of Dakota, (Deadwood, 1881). (A pamphlet of little value). Dixon, F. A.: A Traffic Hist, of the Mississippi River System, Doc. 11, Nat'l Waterways Commission, (Washington, 1909). (A very val- uable pamphlet, but contains little on S. Dak.) Dodge, R. I.: The Black Hills, (New York, 1876). (Mostly a narrative of the wanderings of an army officer). The Hunting Grounds of the Greast West, (London, 1878). (A hunter's narrative and exposition). Dunham, N. J.: History of Davison County, S. D., (Mitchell, 1911). (A fair volume, mostly dealing with personalities). Pinley, J. P.: Certain Climatic Features of the Two Dakotas, (Wash- ington, 1893). (A good introduction; mostly statistics from weather bureau observers). Foster, Jas. S.: Outlines of History of Dakota and Immigrants' Guide, Yankton, 1870). (A very valuable booklet). THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 165 Gannett, Henry: The Boundaries of the U. S. and the Several States and Territories, Bull. 226, U. S. Geol. Survey, (Washington, 1904). (Technical statements of boundary legislation). Profiles of Rivers in the United States. (U. S. Geol. Sur, Bull. 127, (Washington). (Contains data for but two S. D. streams, the Missouri and the Dakota (James). Glenn, S. W.: Annual Summaries for S. Dak., U. S. Weather Bureau. (Valuable official summaries). Summary for Sect. 34, U. S. Weather Bur., (Washington, 1907). (A summary for the years 1890-1908). Governor of Dakota Terr.: Rept. to Sec'y of Interior, 1881-1889. Hagerty, F. H.: The Territory of Dakota, (Aberdeen, 18 89). (A report of the Commissioner of Immigration, of value). The State of S. Dakota, (Aberdeen, 1889). (The constitution and by-laws of the state). Dictionary of Dakota, (Aberdeen, 18S9). (An interesting sum- mary of current conditions). Hale, E. E.: Kansas and Nebraska, (Boston, 1854). (Of little sig- nificance to Dakota). Hanson, Jos. Mills: The Conquest of the Missouri River, (Chicago, 19 09). (Mostly a biography of a river captain). Harvey, L. R. : Floral Succession in the Prairie Grass Formation of S. E. S. Dak. Botanical Gazette XLIV, 1908. (A valuable ecological study of a small area near Yankton). Hedrick, U. P.: Multiplicity of Crops as a Means of Increasing the Future Food Supply, Science, Oct. 30, 1914. (An article of great inter- est). Henry, A. J.: The Climatolagy of the U. S., Bull. Q, U. S. Weather Bureau, (Washington, 1906). (Mostly superseded for S. D. by summaries for Sections 33 and 34, 1908). Secular Variation of Precipitation in the U. S., Bull. Am. Geog. So- ciety XLVl, Mar., 1914. (A significant article of general in- terest ) . Heston. W. W.: Hist, and Activities of the People of S. Dakota, Ency- clopedia Americana. (A good article). Holley, Frances C: Once Their Home, or Our Legacy from the Dak- Kotahs, (Chicago, 1890). (A poor book). Howell, O. W.: Facts About the Missouri River, Ex. Doc. House of Rep. 3rd Sess. 40th Congress, Congressional Series 1368? (Some authoritative statements). Irving, J. D.: Economic Resources of the Northern Black Hills, Prof. Paper 2 6, V. S. Geol. Surv. (Washington). (A detailed report). Irving, Washington: Astoria. (A very readable narrative). Jagger, T. A.: Laccoliths of the Black Hills, U. S. Geol. Surv. 21 Ann. Rept. Pt. Ill (Washington, 1901). (A suggestive technical report). Johnson, Willis E.: Dakota, A Republic of Friends, (Pierre, 1911). (A good elementary book, mostly on the government). Jones, Sheridan: Lists of Plants and Birds Noted in Gregory County, S. Dak., Bull. 4. S. D. Geol. Surv., 1908. (Of little value). Kerr, Robt. F : Presidents Ann. Address, S. D. Historical Society, S. D. Dept. cf Hist. Coll., Vol. V, (Pierre. 1910). (An exceptional ad- dress). Lea, S. H.: Irrigation in S. D.. (Washington. 1909). (A brief bulletin by the state engineer, largely sui)erseded by 13th Census). Ludlow, Wm.: Rept. of Reconnaissance to the Black Hills in 1874, (Washington, 187.5). (Narrative by Ludlow and reports by spe- cialists) . 166 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Maudet — Grancy, E. : Cowboys and Colonels, A Narrative of a Journey Across the Prairie and Over the Black Hills, Translated by Wm. Conn, (London, 1887). (A humorous account of a Frenchman). McClure, P. F. :The Resources of Dakota, Kept, of Comm. of Immigration, (Aberdeen, 1887). (A very valuable volume). Mineral Industry, The. New York (Annual). (Gives statistics of pro- duction of various minerals). Ogden, A.: A Ride Through the Black Hills, Atlantic Monthly, April, 1892. (Some good descriptions and a little poor history). O' Harra, C. C: A Hist, of the Early Expl. of the Black Hills Region, Bull. 4, S. D. Sch. of Mines, (Rapid City, 1904). (Plates showing routes traveled and reproductions of early maps, valuable). The Bad Lands Formations of the Black Hills Region, Bull. 9, S. D. Sch. of Mines, (Rapid City, 1910), (An excellent bul- letin; mostly paleontological). The Cement Resources of the Black Hills, S. D. School of Mines, Bull. 8, (Rapid City, 1908). (A brief discussion). The Mineral Wealth of the Black Hills, S. D. Geol. Survey, Bull. 3, (Vermilion, 1902); this also is Bull, of the S. D. School of Mines. (A valuable paper). Over, W. H.: The Mollusca of Perkins and Harding Counties, N. W. S. D., Bull. 61, S. D. Geol. Surv., pp. 95, 96. Mollusca of South Dakota, The Nautilus, Nov. -Dec, 1915, pp. 79-81, 90-95. Owen, J. A.: Dakota, a Province or a State?, (DeSmet, 1886). (An un- worthy threat). Parker and Campbell: Rept. of the National Conservative Commission, Vol. Ill, (Washington, 1909). (A most valuable report). Perisho, E. C: The Geology of Gregory and Trijop Counties, Bull. 4, S. D. Geol Surv., (Vermilion, 1908). (A good popular sketch). The Geology of Harding County, S. D., Science, Mar., 1911. (A brief summary). Polk, R. L. & Co.: Gazeteer for Minn, and Dak. for 1882, for 1883, for for 1912-13, (Detroit, 1882, 1883, 1912.) (The standard gazetteer). Pool, Raymond J.: A Study of the Vegetation of the Sandhills of Ne- braska, (Minneapolis, 1914). (A monograph of value). Pound and Clements: The Phytogeography of Nebraska, (Lincoln, 1900). (A very suggestive volume). R. R. Commissions of Terr, of Dakota: Annual Reports, 1885-89. (De- tailed reports). Ranson, F. L.: Dakota. The Sunshine State, (Mitchell, 1913). (An elementary school text on government and history). Reagen, A. B.: Lists of Plants and Animals Observed in Tripp County, Bull. 4, S. D. Geol. Surv., (Vermilion, 1908). (Of little value). The Geology of the Rosebud Reservation. Am. Geologist, 1905. Robinson, DeLorme: Editorial Notes on Historical Sketch of N. and S. D., S. D. Dept. of Hist., Coll. Vol. 1, (Pierre, 1902). (Detailed notes on many points). Robinson, Doane: A Brief History of South Dakota, (New York, 1905). (A story-history containing much of value). List of Books on S. D., S. D. Dept. of Hist. Col., Vol. VI., (Pierre, 1912). (The books in the state library). ,:^ Papers Relating to the Divisions of Dakota, S. D. Dept. of Hist Coll., Vol. IV. 1908. (A short list). Outline of South Dakota's History, S. D. Dept of Hist., Coll., Vol. II, 1904. (A brief sketch prepared for the St. Louis exposi- tion). Rosen, Peter: Pahasapah, or the Black Hills of S. D., (St. Louis, 1895). (A book of value, containing much reprinted matter). THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 167 Rydberg, P. H.: The Flora of the Black Hills, Contrib. U. S. Nat'l Mus. LII, (Washington, 1896). (A systematic treatment — technical). Salisbury, R. D.: Physiography (Advanced), (New York, 1908). (The leading text book of the subject). Salisbury, Barrows J. Tower: Elements of Geography, (New York). (An excellent text). Saunders, W.: A Catalog of the Flora of S. D., Bull. 64, U. S. Exp. Station, (Brookings, 1899). (A preliminary list — far from com- plete). Seton, E. E.: Life Histories of Northern Animals, (New York, 19 09). (Two very valuable volumes). Shambaugh, B. F.: Maps Showing the Boundary History of Iowa, la. Jour, of Hist, and Politics, Vol. 2, 1904. (Good series of maps with notes). The History of the Constitutions of Iowa. (A worthy book). Shantz, H. L.: The Short Grass Formation of Colorado, Bull. 201, Bureau of Plant Industry, Dept. of Agri., (Washington, 1911). (A valuable ecological study). Shelford, V. E.: Animal Communities in Temperate America as Illustrated by the Chicago Region, (Chicago, 1913). (The most important volume on animal ecology). Principles and Problems of Animal Geography, MSS. (Some excel- lent suggestions). Smith and Young: History and Government of S. D., (New York, 1904). (A fairly good book). Stockman, Wm. B.: Periodic Variation of Rainfall in the Arid Region, Bull. N., U. S. Weather Bureau, (Washington, 1905). (An official report of interest). Sweetzer, M. F.: King's Handbook of the U. S., (Buffalo, 1896). (Con- tains good descriptions of the states). Thwaites, R. J.: Mackinaw, Wise. Hist, Coll. Vol. XIV. (An excel- lent paper by an authority). Todd, J. E.: A Preliminary Sketch of the Geology of S. Dak., Bull. 1, S. D. Geol. Survey, (Vermilion, 1894). (Only recently superseded by Darton's bulletin). The Moraines of the Missouri Coteau and Their Attendant De- posits, Bull. 144, U. S. Geol. Surv., (Washington, 1896). (A fair technical paper). Misc. Papers on the Geol. of S. Dak., Bull. 2, S. D. Geol. Survey, (Vermillion, 1908). (Several valuable papers on bad-lands, wells and N. W. corner). The Moraines of Southeastern S. Dak. and Their Attendant De- posits, Bull. 158, U. S. Geol. Surv., (Washington, 1899). (A valuable technical report). The Geol. and Water Resources of Portions of Southeastern S. Dak. Water Supply Paper No. 34, U. S. Geol. Survey, (Washington, 1900). (A valuable detailed study). The Hydrographic History of S. Dak., Bull. Geol, Soc. Am., Vol. XIII, (New York, 1901). (A good sketch, now in part superseded by his later work). Mineral Building Materials, Fuels and Waters of S. D., Bull. 3, S. D. Geol. Survey, (Vermilion, 1902). (A valuable paper of general interest). The Geol. and Water Resources of the Lower James Valley, Water Supply Paper 90, U. S. Geol. Surv., (Washington, 1904). (A detailed study). 168 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Geologic Folios for the Aberdeen-Redfield, Alexandria, DeSmet, Elk- point, Huron, Mitchell, Parker, and Olivet Quadrangles, U. S. Geol. Survevy, (Washington). (Detailed discussion of great local value). The Geology of the N. W. Central S. D., Bull. 4, S. D. Geol. Surv.. Vermilion, 19 08). (A good reconnaisance report). Glacial Channels in South Dakota, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 23, New York, 1911). (A suggestive paper). The Pleistocene History of the Missouri River, Science, Vol. 39, Feb., 1914, (New York, 1914). (The vice-president's address A. A. Advancement of Science. Excellent). Turner, F. J.: The Rise of the Northwest. (A standard book). Upham, Warren: Glacial Lake Agassiz; Monograph XXV, U. S. Geol. Survey, (Washington, 1889). (A famous monograph — a little on South Dakota). U. S. Geol. Survey: Mineral Resources of the U. S., (Washington, An- nual). (Valuable statistics). U. S. Census. Reports, Bulletins, and Abstracts, (Washington, 186 0- 1914.. (Authoritative). U. S. Senate and House Documents. The Congressional Globe, 1857. Annals of Congress. U. S. Weather Bureau: Monthly Summaries for Dist. 6, the Missouri Valley. Summaries of Climatological Data of the U. S. by Sections, Bull. W, (Washington, 1912). (Contains summarv for South Dakota 1890-1908). Visher, S. S.: A List of the Birds of Western S. D., The Auk, Apr., 1909. The Plants of the S. Dak. Sand Hills, Anr. Botanist, 1912. Erosion in the Badlands of S. Dak., Jour, of Geography. 1912. Additions to the Flora of the Black Hills, L Torreya. IX. 1909; II. Muhlenbergia, VIII.; 1912; III. Muhlenbergia, IX. 1913. The Birds of Harding County, S. Dak.. The Auk, 1911, 1912, 1913. (Reprinted and supplemented in Bulletin 6). The Birds of Fall River Countv. Southwestern S. Dak., Wilson Bul- letin, Mar., 1912; Mar., 1913. The Birds of Sanborn County, S. Dak., The Auk, 1913 The Flora of South-Central S. Dak., and Northwestern S. Dak., Muhlenbergia, IX. 1913. The Geog., Geol., and Biology of South-Central S. Dak., Bull. 5, S. D. Geol. Surv., (Vermilion, 1912). The Biology of Harding Countv. Northwestern S. Dak., Bull. 6, S .D. Geol. Survey, (Vermilion, 1914). The Birds of Clay Count", S. E. S. Dak., Wilson Bulletin, 1915. Warren, Lieut. G. K.: Prel. Rept. of Expl. in Neb. and Dak in the Years 1855-57,; (Washington. 1875). Reprint from Appendix to Rept. of War Office for 1858. (Contains valuable reports of Hayden). Wilson, Frederick: Old Ft. Pierre and Its Neighbors. S. D. Dept. of Hist. Col, Vol. I, (Pierre, 1903). (A detailed narrative from official correspondence). Winchell. Alex. N.: Minnesota's Eastern, Southern and Western Boun- daries. Minn. Hist. Soc, Coll., Vol. X, St. Paul. (A good study). Winchester, D. E.: Crossbedding in the White River Formation of Northwestern S. Dak., .Tour of Geol., Vol. XXI, (Chicago, 1913). (Contains views of doubtful correctness). THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 169 Fig. 38. Average Length of the Ciop Growing Season, in Days. 170 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Fig. 39. The Largest Lignite Mine in the State, Near Strool. Perkins Co. Fig. 40. Range Horses at Water Hole, Fall River Co. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 171 wutg^^^ iJHi i"iiift'iiMBHBi ' __ ***L_ Liiv Miiiifafl "i-^-.-^-'ir'-^ Fig. 41. TJie City of .Pierre from Acros.s the Missouri River. P ^ lfe|gte| OT ^^ . — S^S^H ^il:z Fig. 42. A View of Rapid Cit.v showing the foothills in which the Dakota sandstone, of artesian well significance, outcrops. 172 THE 'GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Fig-. 43. The Missouri River Near Vermilion, S. D. FiR. _M. Leiid. S,. P., the largest city of the Black Hills and the site of th( Homestake Mine. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 173 Fig-. 45. IMerre, Showing the Capital m the Distance. Fig-. 46. Aberdeen, looliing north from the Citizens Bank Building. 174 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Fig. 47. A farm home near Aberdeen, and a part of an oat field which yielded 70 bushels per acre. — Courtesy C. M. & St. P. R. R. Co. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 175 Fig. 4^. .V wheat field near Mcintosh, in the northwestern quarter of the state. — Courtesy C. M. & St. P. R. PI. Co. Fig. 49. A general view In eastern South Dakota (Bath.) — Courtesy C. M. & St. P. R. R. Co. 176 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Figr. 50. A wheat field near Webster in the northeastern quarter of the state. Courtesy C. M. & St. R R. R. Co. 'Fig. 51. A t.vi)icalmixecr farming- home in North Central South Dakota. — I'hoto by J. W. Parmley, Ipswich, S. D. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 177 Fig-. 52. Claim Shanty. Sig.— 12. South Dakota State Geological and Natural History Survey FREEMAN WARD, State Geologist BULLETIN 8 The Geography of South Dakota BY S. S. VISHER Report of the State Geologist 1916 — 1918 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH DAKOTA VERMILION JULY, 1918 University of South Dakota, Department of Geology, State Geological Survey, Vermillion, S. D. June 21, 1918. Regents of Education, Pierre, S. D. Dear Sirs: I have the honor herewith to submit my report to be published as bulletin number eight of the State Geological and Natural History Survey. It consists of two parts, — one is "The Report of the State Geologist for 1916-1918;" the other is the important and well prepared technical paper "The Geography of South Dakota" by S. S. Visher. Respectfully, FREEMAN WARD, State Geologist. THE GEOGRAPHY OP SOUTH DAKOTA 181 BIENNIAL REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST 1916-1918 IXTROnrCTORV. The last report carried jthe Survey uj) to September 1st, 1916. The present report covers the activities of the Survey from that date to July 1, 191S. The statistics, however, reach only to June 1, 1918, those for the month of June will be included in the succeeding report. The permanent staff of the Survey remains the same, — Freeman Ward as State Geologist, W. 11. Over as Naturalist. R. T. VanTuyl acted as field assistant during July and August, 1917. The work of the Survey will be considered under the following headings and in the order given, — Field Work, Service Bureau, Museum, Publications, Accessions, Relation of the Survey to the War, Miscellaneous Activities, Needs of the Survey. FIELD FORK. 1916, — The work of the field season of this year v/as discussed in the preceding report. 1917, — The State Geologist, starting out about the middle of June, spent a short time in Rapid City in conference with Prof. C. C. O'Harra on the War Minerals situation. He then went immediately to Mobridge to take up the main work of the season. Soon after the first of July he was joined by Mr. Over and Mr. VanTuyl. It was planned to survey the Missouri River and the territory im- mediately adjoining from the north part of the state down to Pierre. In order to make the trip possible a boat was built large enough for the party, equipment and supplies. In addition a light skiff was provided. Since the territory to be surveyed was in the gas belt of the state the State Geologist hoped that detailed examination might bring to light some positive information regarding oil. But only negative results were obtained throughout the entire course of the trip. Despite this, a con- siderable amount of valuable information was secured concerning the various geological conditions of the region. Mr. Over's work was twofold. He made a study of the plant and animal life to supplement the rather meager data we had of that area. In addition, he made a large number of archeological discoveries. His work of previous seasons had lead him to expect a series of ancient Arikara village sites at various points along the river. This proved to be the case. Tools, weapons, implements, of various sorts, ornaments and skeletal material were found in considerable quantity. '.V'hile camped soma miles below Mobridge word was received that oil was reported to have been found in wells at Mahto and Mcintosh, Corson County. Several of the business men of Mobridge, headed by Mr. B. S. Hill, were enough, interested in the affair to pay the expenses of the State Geologist for a special trip to these localities. Unfortunately the conditions did not turn out to be as favorable as they seemed to promise at first. The status of the oil problem of the state is given in outline in Cir- cular Number 1. Additional Trips, — Several short trips were taken outside of the regular field season. About the middle of December, 1916, a mastodon skeleton was re- ported found near Sioux Falls. Mr. Over went there to investigate. The bones proved to be only fragments of chalk rock. But since mastodon 182 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA bones have been found in the state all reports need to be looked up whether they turn out to be favorable or not. During the latter part of December, 1916, the State Geologist at- tended meetings of the Association of State Geologists in New York City and Albany, N. Y. At that time he presented a paper on the "Geological History of South Dakota." In September, 1917, an old Indian grave was discovered near Cen- terville. Mr. Over made a trip there, recovered additional material, and, through the courtesy of Mr. A. A. Norgren, was able to have the whole find returned to the Museum. In November, 1917, Mr. Over investigated several Indian mounds near Madison and secured some good material. In April, 1918, a conference on War Minerals was held by the Asso- ciation of State Geologists with the U. S. Geological Survey and the U. S. Bureau of Mines at Washington, D. C. The State Geologist attended this meeting. Occasional short trips have been taken in the vicinity of Vermillion from time to time. SERVICE BUREAU. This important branch of the Survey work seems to be growing. A continually increasing number of inquiries has come in both from citizens of the state and from persons and companies in other parts of the country. A great variety of information is sought. Specimens of many kinds are sent in for identification. Some analytical work has been done through the Department of Chemistry of the University. Approximately 37 5 inquiries have been received and answered by mail. Personal talks with and advice from some one or the other of the Survey staff are of almost daily occurrence. The completeness of the answers given is determined by the amount of information on hand. Much of this can be gained only by field work. The more thoroughly the state is explored and mapped the better can the Survey serve the people. The Survey is finding that it can serve the producers of the state by centralizing the statistical information from their mines, mills and prospects. The producers are finding that the Survey, because of the centralization of data therein, is able to save them considerable clerical work and annoyance. This is one of the newer developments of the Service Bureau which promises to expand to much greater usefulness. The State Mine Inspector is cooperating in this matter also. MUSEUM. While the State Geologist is technically the Curator of the Museum yet the actual museum work — arranging, cataloging, preparation of exhibits, etc., etc.,^ — has been in the hands of Mr. Over who has been extremely successful in all phases of the work. The Museum is becoming an increasingly important factor in the educational achievements of the state. The collections of exhibit material are increasing. The specimens and other data are so classified that specific information along many lines is quickly available. That use is being made of the Museum is attested by the fact that there were ap- proximately 5000 visitors during the period. The total number of specimens acquired during the above period was approximately 2615. Most of these have been classified, catalogued and arranged for exhibition. Those deserving of special mention are the fine elk head donated by Mr. Bert S. Hill, Mobridge, S. D.; the mounted mammals and birds loaned THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 183 by Mr. John Berens, Selby, S. D., and known as the "Berens Collec- tion." This comprises among other things, a buffalo, antelope and four deer. And of unusual interest is the large collection of Indian skeletons and artifacts collected by the State Survey along the Missouri River during July and August. 1917. This material is valuable not only in rounding out our Arikara and Mandan Indian collections, but also has aided in deciding, conclusively, doubtful questions pertaining to early Indian history in South Dakota. Below will be found a list of accessions. Except where otherwise indicated the specimens are donations. Hawk, Albert Omdahl, Burbank, S. D. Snake, Hog-nosed Adder, A. G. Warner, Clear Lake, S. D. Sioux Indian Skeleton with Flint Lock Gun and Necklace, A. A. Xor- gren, Centerville, S. D. LeSeuers Terrapin, George Lumley, Pierre, S. D. Collection of Plants, Prof. Walter Parish, Gary, S. D Avocet, Claude Crew, Interior, S. D. Old Mauser Rifie and Indian Arrow, Geo. F. Bower, Vermillion, S. D. 10 Hematite Specimens, (Archaeology) Prof. R. W. Jones, U. S. D. 2 Cherry Stone Crushers (Sioux) Robt. Lindley, Bonesteel, S. D. 5 Box Terrapins, Wm. Palmier, Imlay, S. D. 4 8 Bird Skins, F. A. Patton, Artesian, S. D. 102 Mounted Mammals and Birds, John Berens, Selby, S. D. Loaned. Collection Sea Moss, Prof. A. L. Haines, U. S. D. 4 3 Mounted Birds and one Mounted Skunk, John C. Green, Sioux Falls, S. D. 6 Mounted Birds and one Weasel Mounted, O. C. Stanghar, Sioux Falls, S. D. 3 Indian Skeletons, Beads and Stone Hammer, W. N, Gilbert, Mad- ison Pass, S. D. Snake, Hog-nosed Adder, J. C. Dawson, Vermillion, S. D. Old Lincoln Campaign Chart, Mrs. C. A. Wilson, Vermillion, S. D. Tarantula, Harlan Richardson, Vermillion, S. D. Spider, E. Puhr, Highmorei, S. D. Old Tin Lantern, C. A. Wilson, Vermillion, S. D. Shrew, Arthur A. Hale, Bison, S. D. Marine Shells, Walter Willey, U. S. D. Marine Shells, Miss Jesse Pangburn, Faulkton, S. D. Barnacles, V. E. Eastman, Sioux Falls, S. D. Skull, Clay County Court House Yard, Chas. Sunderling, Vermillion, S. D. Spinning Wheel and Reed, Loaned, Dr. Freeman Ward, U. S. D. 6 Bird Skins, E. C. Eckert, Elk Point, S. D. Fragments Old Survey Stake, Lake County, Porter Lowery, U. S. D. Salamander, Dr. A. N. Cook, U. S. D. Snake, Hog-nosed Adder, C. J. Stringham, Sioux Falls, S. D. Snake, Red-bellied Snake, C. J. Stringham, Sioux Falls, S. D. Bull Snake, E. M. Hall, Pierre, S. D. Snake, Hog-nosed Adder, W. J. Chaussee, Vermilion, S. D. Lizzard, Red-headed, V. A. Luttio. Models of Road Beds (3) Dept. Civil Engineering, U. S. D. Indian Flint Knife and Fragments of Pottery, F. E. Ratcliff, Ver- million. S. D. Plant, Araucaria, Chris. Hansen, Vermillion, S. D. Ring-necked Pheasant, Roy Davis, Vermillion, S. D. Collection Grasses, A. E. Noyes, Redig, S. D. 184 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA Golden Eagle, A. E. Noyes, Redlg, S. D. Bird Skin, A. E. Noyes, Redig, S. D. Squirrel Nest, Frank Bardwell and M. Minich, U. S. D. Old Kentucky Rifle, Loaned, Prof. M. W.. Davidson, U. S. D. Old Revolver, Millard Purdue, Vermillion, S. D. Colts Revolver and Collection Sioux Indian Relics, Loan, Dr. Freeman Ward, U. S. D. Nest of Baltimore Oriole, E. D. Cowles, Vermillion, S. D. Specimen Gypsum, Prof. A. L. Haines, U. S. D. Whito Muskrat, Donald Harris and Lyle Swainson, Highmore, S. D. Porcupine Skin and Buffalo Bones, E. A. Sheldon, Vermillion, S. D. Indian Stone Hammer, R. E. Brown, Academy, S. D. Indian Stone Hammer, Porter Lowery, U. S. D. Indian Stone Hammer, H. L. Ferry, Vermillion, S. D. Indian Stone Hammer, Rev. P. J. Reinethsein, Elk Point, S. D. Young Muskrat, Dr. W. P. Jones, U. S. D. Indian Stone Tomahawk, Stone Hammer, Mortar, Buffalo Head, 2 Clay Concretions, J. Martin Larson, Elk Point, S. D. Mcth, Polyphemus, Miss Villy Cleland, Vermillion, S. D. "Kissing Bug," Kedwidae, Mrs. Smith, Ft. Bennett, S. D. Goshawk Roy Jones, Vermillion, S. D. Goshawk, Roy Jones, Vermillion, S. D. Abnormal Pig, 3 Snakes, Buffalo Head, C. B. Gilbertson, Vermillion, S. D. Scorpion, Dick Willis, Andover, S. D. Collection Minerals, Wood Carving, Buffalo Horns, Fossils and Shells, Mrs. T. M. Goddard, Vermillion, S. D. Wood Carving by Ants in Norway, E. Ostland, Vermillion, S. D. 2 Copper Coins, Waldo Graves, Vermillion, S. D. Dakota Sioux English Dictionary, E. F. Canaday, U. S. D. Cannon Ball, W. B. Smith, Vermillion, S. D- Cannon Ball, Cliff Hallas, Vermillion, S. D. Old Grain Cradle, Atty. A. B. Gunderson, Vermillion, S. D. Short-eared Owl. Kermit Davis, Vermillion, S. D. American Horned Owl, J. T. Christenson, Lake Preston, S. D. Snowy Owl, Andrew Boline, Centerville, S. D. Snowy Owl, Ole Dahl. Ideal. S. D. Snowy Owl, Harold Rice, Flandreau, S. D. Snowv Owl, Jerry Smit, Platte, S. D. Snowy Owl Alive, W. B. Smith, Mansfield, S. D. Pair of Black Ducks and Least Bittern, H. G. Taylor, Vermilion, S. D. Indian Baskets and Beaded Work, Loaned, W. Gray Tisdale, Sioux Falls, S. D. 3 Indian Stone Hammers, Lars Larson, Elk Point, S. D. Old War Photo of Gen. Grant and Brig. -general J. McArthur, and others, H. L. Ferry. Elk Head Mounted, Bert S. Hill, Mobridge, S. D. American Horned Owl, Roy Davis. Vermillion, S. D. Black Rat and Red Bird, Mr. Spatz, Meckling, S. D. Chinese Coins, E. O. Sheldon, Vermillion, S. D. 2 Indian Stone Hammers, C. B. Rosa, Forest City, S. D. Indian Beaded Ve«t and 2 Beaded Bags, Dr. B. F. Lockwood, Yank- ton, S. D. Bayonet, Battlefield of Bull Run, Loaned, Prof. W. M. Davidson, U. S. D. Mounted Deer Head, Deer Antlers and Indian Snow Shoes, changed from loan to donation by R. A. Morgan. Vermillion, S. D. Indian Stone Hammer, Mrs. Alice L. Overholser, Glenham, S. D. Indian Stone Hammer, 10 arrow points, R. H. Peterson, Mobridge, S. D. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 185 Tarantula, J. H. Hartson, Vermillion, S. D. Moth, Walter Harrington, Vermillion, S. D. Golden Eagle, Am. Horned Owl, Loan, Vincent Conway, Westfield, Iowa. Crows Nest and Eggs, R. T. Van Tuyl, U. S. D. Polished Agate and 2 0 old Coins, Loan, Mrs. T. B. Thompson, Ver- million, S. D. Flax Fiber and old Bread Basket, President Slagle, U. S. D. Ox Bow, A. T. Kayser, Parkston, S. D. Coated Well Pipe Point, M. B. West, Vermillion, S. D. Plants and Sea Moss, Miss Mary Henderson, Calif. Indian Photographs, Arrow, Minerals, Cane and Indian Ores, Mrs. W. W. Allen, Vermillion, S. D. Irish Shillalah, Loaned, D. M. Eastman, Sioux Falls, S. D. Weasel, Edwin Harrington, Vermillion, S. D. Snow Goose, C. W. Over, Vermillion, S. D. Whitefronted Goose, C. J. Stringham, Sioux Falls, S. D. Copper Amulet, Worn by a Sioux Indian, James Hughes, Mobridge, S. D. White Mouse, Adolph Iverson, Vermillion, S. D. Collection of Algae, Dept. of Biology, U. S. D. Xest of Chimney Swift, Mortimer Herzberg, Jr., Vermillion, S. D. Hand-made Tools from the Philippine Islands, F. Ratcliff, Vermillion, S. D. Fossil Aggregation, A. N. Williams, Akron, Iowa. 2 Sharks Eggs, Mrs. P. A Brink, Pensacola, Fla. Abnormal Pig, Guy Chamberlain, Vermillion, S. D. 2 Porcupiners, Loaned, Geo. Butterfield, Pierre, S. D. Collection of Carboniferous Fossils, changed from a loan to a dona- tion by Dr. C. S. Thorns, U. S. D. Specimens added by the State Geological and Natural History Survey are as follows: 22 Plants, 15 Bird Skins, 12 Snakes, 2 Mice, 4 Amphibia. 4 0 Arikara Indian Skeletons and 30 extra Skulls, 2000 Flint, Stone, Bone and Shell Indian Implements and Ornaments. 3 Omaha (?) Indian Skeletons and Beads from a Mound at Madison Pass and 4 Omaha (?) Indian Skeletons from a Mound neiar Brule Creek, Union County. The following have been mounted for the Museum: Buffalo Skeleton, 2 Goldom Eagles, Lesser Snow Goose, American Horned Owl, Rabbit, Avocet, Least Bittern, Pair of Black Ducks, Pheasant, Nuthatch, Woodpecker, Brown Creeper, Muskrat, 7 Turtles, Weasel, Gar Fish, Sturgeon. Added to the Museum by exchange: 5 Snakes and 3 Turtles. An effort has been made to keep for exhibition puri)Oses as many live animals as possible, but on account of no funds to purchase speci- mens nor to build suitable pens and buildings but little can be done. The following are on hand: 1 Coyote, 2 Porcupines, 1 Alligator, 1 Snowy Owl, 2 River Turtles and 3 Land Terrapins, and B Snakes. One 2nd hand show caso and one new base with 30 large drawers have been added during the period. 3 Arikara Indian Skeletons and 10 Skulls have been presented, and 24 Skulls loaned to the United States National Museum for investigation. A number of Books and Bulletins have been loaned to individuals over the State who have been interested in subjects concerning Natural History. The limitations and needs of the Museum will be discussed in a later paragraph. 186 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA PUBLICATIONS. A new series of publications— Circulars — has been started by the Survey. The reasons for this step are as follows: Often during the progress of the work enough information is at hand to be of value to those interested but not enough for a complete treatise. A part of a county may be finished, perhaps, and publication waiting on the complete investigation of the whole county. A problem under inves- tigation may take sefveral years to finish, yet certain phases of the inves- tigation may yield results sufficiently complete to be of value by them- selves. There may be a demand for statistical matter, or lists of refer- ences, or current information, etc., which would hardly do for a formal bulletin. Such partial reiports, summary reports, reports of progress, or lists, etc., are to be handled in the Circulars. The Bulletin is to be reserved for the more detailed and formal treatment of problems whose investigation is complete or practically so. It is planned to publish the Circulars frequently and the Bulletins at longer intervals. With this arrangement much information will reach the public with a minimum of delay. So far three Circulars have been issued, as follows: No. 1 — Oil in South Dakota. By Freeman Ward, Dec, 1917. No. 2 — South Dakota Fossils, hy Freeman Ward, Mch., 1918. No. 3 — 'Protect the Birds and Help Win the War, by W. H. Over, June, 1918. The manuscript on "The Geography of South Dakota" by S. S. VisheT, which has been on hand so long, is herewith attached for publi- cation as part of this bulletin. A new geological map of South Dakota on a scale of twelve miles to the inch has been ready in manuscript for a year and a half awaiting publication. A new base map of South Dakota on a scale of six miles to the inch has just been completed and is ready for publication. This map shows the county boundaries, drainage, railroads, county seats and many other towns, township and range divisions. It also shows the larger relief features by means of contour lines with a 500 foot interval. The manuscripts for a bulletin on Birds is nearing completion, will undoubtedly be ready for publication early in the fall. ACCESSIONS. In addition to the material listed under the Museum, about 65 purely geological specimens — rocks, minerals, fossils, etc., — have been col- lected by the Survey. Many publications — Federal, State, Foreign — are received constantly. They are not kept separate from those received by the Geological De- partment of the University but are included in the departmental library. REL/ATIOX OF THE SURVEY TO THE WAR. The raw materials of war, and without which our war program would have to stop, are the natural mineral resources of the country. They are commonly designated as "War Minerals." They have always been in demand even in times of peace. Much has usually been imported by this country. Now that we are at war overseas traffic is difficult and uncertain. Moreover, the Shipping Board is withdrawing ships from the trade in order to hasten the transportation of men, food, munitions, etc. As a result the importations have been much curtailed, they may be cut off entirely. And the demand for these minerals is much greater than in peace times. All of which means that the domestic supply will have to be very much increased and that with a minimum of delay. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 187 All the Federal Surveys and Bureaus and all the State Surveys are actively at work trying not only to speed up and increase the production from known deposits but also to discover new deposits. Early in April there was a conference at Washington, of the State Geologists with the U. S. Geological Survey and the U. S. Bureau of Mines. The War Minerals situation was gone over thoroughly at that time and further plans drawn up. It is regrettable to have to record that South Dakota, although the Survey has been in existence 2 5 years, has done so little to determine the kind and extent of its mineral resources that it is able to bring but a small amount of aid to our country at this time. We should have taken a complete inventory of our natural resources long before this. The fault has always rested with those in authority over the funds nec- essary for this extensive work. Each State Geologist has repeatedly urged the dire necessity for funds sufficient to maintain an adequate force of experts in active and continuous service. Neither regents nor legislators have had vision enough to see the connection between a geological survey and the needs of civilization. Now our country is facing a crisis in raw materials, — mineral resources — and South Dakota can help but little. This is because she does not know exactly what her resources are, for she has never maintained a Survey sufficiently well armed to attack the problem as it should be. Last season the State Geologist spent what time he could (he has to teach nine months of the year) in looking up that valuable resource, oil. This season he will be out again. There are no funds for employ- ing additional experts to hasten the work. Another war service of the Survey has been in the matter of birds. Protection of the birds means saving of crops and so increase our food supply. The Survey is urging this matter in Circular No. 3. The State Geologist has lectured twice on "The War Services of a Geologist." MIS( ELLAXEOl S ACTIVITIES. The clays collected in the Sioux Falls region were tested as far as our facilities allowed. Because of very limited equipment they had to be sent off for the most important tests. For this purpose they were sent to Prof. H. Ries of Cornell University who is one of the leading clay engineevs of the country. There came to the attention of the State Geologist a machine, "Barnes' Electric Water Purifier," which claimed to be a water softener and purifier. The matter of softening hard water is a serious problem in this state. So a machine was purchased and experiments run to test out its value in this connection. It did not perceptibly soften the water and was demonstrated to be very largely a fake. The agent handling the machine was notified of its limitations and seemed glad to learn the truth concerning the device. The chemical analyses involved in the tests were made in the laboratory of the State Food and Drug Department with the generous permission of the Commissioner, Mr. Guy G. Frary. At the suggestion of Mr. Over all those in the state interested in archeology were invited to attend a meeting held at Vermillion in the interests of that subject. A good attendance was realized and a number of papers were presented, two of them discussing South Dakota condi- tions,— "Pre-Historic Man in South Dakota," by W. H. Over. The State Geologist discussed the same subject from a geological standpoint. All the work so far reported, including prei)aration of manuscript for Circulars, papers, etc., and work on maps, has to be sandwiched in with the regular university duties during the school year. Mr. Over has given three lectures, — "Birds," Early Races of S. Dak.," "The State Survey and Museum." 188 THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA NEEDS OF THE SURVEY. As suggested under the topic "Relation of the Survey to the War," the Survey can do the best work and get results quickly only by main- taining an adequate staff of experts. This state is too large for one man to cover, especially when ho can be in the field but three months of the year. Nor can one man be an expert in all lines of geology. If experts are employed they must have suitable equipment, — labora- tory, instrumental, clerical, etc., — in order to be most efficient. One of the big aids to rapid and accurate field work is a topographic map. Such maps should be made with all possible dispatch so that the field work does not lag. There are many other uses for topographic maps than that for geological work (see Bull. 7, pp. 11, 12.) Even with the present staff of the Survey — Geologist and Naturalist — the results could be increased at least threefold if there was sufficient money for transportation and unskilled labor and other like aids. For instance. — Season before last the State Geologist did all his work on foot. A large share of his time was spent in getting to and from the work. An auto continually at hand would have enabled him to cover at least three times as much territory. Again, — Last season if we had had a house boat Mdth power instead of having to row, we would have covered at least three times as much territory with less exhaustion. Furthermore, unskilled labor can move and set up camp, rustle wood and water, cook, dig holes, etc., etc., as well as skilled labor. More- over, if an expert has to use part of his energy and time on manual labor and housekeeping, he has just that much less to apply to geology or natural history. One indication of the need for complete and extensive information concerning our resources is shown by the fa-ct that several business interests, with capital amounting to several hundred thousand dollars and desiring to build up industries around our resources, failed to locate in the state because the information was not sufficiently detailed to interest them. Another most important need is the taking care of what we have and making it more useful. I refer to the Museum. The Museum is housed in a part of Science Hall. This is a most flimsy building. It is in no ways fireproof, it is scarcely weatherproof. A large portion of the collections now reposing in the Museum could never be replaced if once lost. There are historical and archeological materials the only things of their kind in existence. Our Arkara material, which the Survey has collected through the untiring efforts of Mr. Over, is unique, there is nothing to equal it anywhere. The State Geologist within the last year visited the Field Museum in Chicago, the American Museum in New York City, and the National Museum in Washington. He finds after careful inquiry that our Museum has at least five times as much Arikara material as those three famous museums together. It is undoubtedly true that we have the best collection of such material in the world. It is the height of indiscretion to give such fine material so little protection. Moreover it shows a lack of business sense. We have other excellent specimens. We have loan collections for which we are responsible. I cannot too strongly emphasize the need for a modern fireproof structure for our Museum. The place we have for display is far too small. Such material as is now on exhibition would require twice the floor space to show it prop- erly. In addition, a large collection of botanical specimens that have been acquired through exchange with other State Universities, two col- lections of fossils, and several hundred Indian implements and relics are all stored in boxes and drawers for lack of room to display. Display THE GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH DAKOTA 189 cases and floor space is needed for collections illustrating the products of South Dakota. * The Museum has reached that stage of growth where the Mammals, Birds and Ethnological material should be displayed by the effective group system, not only to keep pace with other Museums but also to satisfy the demands of the public that use the Museum for educational purposes. New and better cases are needed. At least $500.00 should be available each year to purchase rare specimens, to fill out incomplete collections, and to send competent col- lectors after specimens, either in or out of the state, that are becoming rare and more difficult to obtain year by year. An equal amount should be spent annually to build up the live animal exhibit. $50.00 should be at the disposal of the Museum each year to pur- chase much needed books pertaining to Natural History, and especially Bulletins, Reports, and Proceedings of scientific organizations of the United States that can be procured only by purchase. Rei)orts and published proceedings that are particularly necessary are those of the Philadelphia Academy of Science and the Carnegie Institute, as well as U. S. Biological Reports that are out of print. Funds are also needed for publication. The maps and bird bulletin prepared in response to a general call for them, are cases in point. Collections of South Dakota minerals, rocks, plants, animals are desired in the high schools and other educational institutions of the state. The Survey can get these out when funds for this purpose are available. In view of the pressing needs of the Survey and the great opportunity it has to further the interests of the State and also aid the country in this time of w'ar, it is hoped that a very generous appropriation will be urged. »» »** Jo <^ -^c ^^^ c" o "^0^ -m^: ^K : ^^•n^. 4 O 0- <^ .. -^ '''"°' \ <^ *'...* ,0' •^\' p!- ,^°% --m^J /% '--^P!" o^""-^-^ ■•!^^^'.' 0 r'^Ji^. <^. ° OOBBS BROS. ^ 0 & ■ " ^ <3^ * » - o ' ^^0 ST. AUGUSTINE » » Vj-^ <: ^^32084